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WELD'S XEW EXGLISH GRAMMAR. 



WELD'S 



ENGLISH GBAMMAR, 



ILLUSTRATED BY EXERCISES IN 



COMPOSITION, ANALYZING, AND PARSING. 



J 



BY ALLEN H: WELD, A. M., 

AUTHOR OF ANALYZING AND PARSING BOOK, LATIN LESSONS AND READER, 



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IMPROVED EDITION. 






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SANBORN & CARTER, 
PORTLAND, 

MAINE. 



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Entered according to Act of Congress, in the Year 1 849, by 

SANBORN and CARTER, 

In the Clerk's Office of the District Court of the District of Maine. 



PREFACE. 



As the plates from which the previous editions of this Work 
were printed were unfit for further use, and on that account 
it became necessary to stereotype a new set, the opportunity 
thus presented for a revision has been improved. In re- 
writing the book, full advantage has been taken of the unfriendly 
as well as the friendly strictures on former editions. From 
the past success of the Work, the Author has been much 
encouraged in this new labor, and has earnestly endeavored 
to make it more useful, and more acceptable to the hundreds 
of excellent teachers who have shown it continued favor and 
indulgence. He hopes his efforts will not be found to have 
been in vain. 

No material alteration is made from the original plan ; 
but the execution of it, in almost every part, is considerably 
modified. Much is added to the analytical, and also to the 
grammatical part of the Work ; and, although its size is not 
enlarged, yet, by a more economical management of the type, 
it actually contains about one third more than any former 
edition. 

The plan pursued necessarily requires some repetition; 
but this is avoided as much as is consistent with practical 
convenience. It is the design of the Part following Orthog- 
raphy, to explain and combine the elements of a simple 
sentence ; but in doing this, the principles of Syntax are 



4 PREFACE. 

developed at every step. But these could not be fully illus- 
trated in this Part, without diverting the mind of the learner 
from the chief end to be attained. It therefore seemed necessa- 
ry to state principles as they were developed, and afterwards 
to illustrate them more fully in the Part devoted exclusively 
to Syntax. For a similar reason a separate- Part was appro- 
priated to Etymology. In this are contained tables, inflections 
and details, which must necessarily have a place in a Gram- 
mar for the purpose of reference. Had these been intro- 
duced in connection with the analytical process, they would 
have separated too widely from one another the explanations 
of the elementary parts of the sentence. It is confidently be- 
lieved that in practice the arrangement adopted will be found 
convenient, and that the occasional repetitions and recapitula- 
tions will not be considered by the experienced teacher as a 
defect in the work. 

While preparing the present edition, the author has had 
access to most of the principal works on Grammar, such as 
those of Harris, Lowth, Ward, Murray, Crombie, 
De Sacy, Cramp, and Webster; and also to the articles 
on Grammar in the Edinburgh, Britannica, and Metropolitan 
Encyclopaedias. In the analytical part much assistance has 
been derived from the Greek Grammars of Buttman and 
Kuner, from the Latin Grammars of Zumpt, and Andrews 
and Stoddard, and from the work of De Sacy on General 
Grammar. 

The general plan and peculiar features of the Work, which 
distinguish it from others on the same subject, may be in- 
ferred from the " Synopsis of Grammatical Relations," found 
on pages 230 and 231. 

Boston, July, 1849* 



FAMILIAR INSTRUCTION FOR YOUNG BEGINNERS. 



The following introductory pages are prefixed to the work, mainly for the purpose 
of suggesting to the teacher a familiar and intelligible method of explaining to the 
learner the formation of words and sentences ; the terms employed in Grammar ; and 
the classification of words into what is called Parts of Speech. 

Each lesson presents a subject for a familiar lecture, with a few illustrations which 
can be varied or extended at the discretion of the teacher. 

LESSON I. (Letters.) 

Note. — Let the class stand at the Blackboard, or be furnished with slates while 
practising these lessons ; or the teacher can do the writing on the Board for the class. 

Write the marks or letters a, e, i, o, u. Sound or utter each 
separately.* 

Write the letters b, c, d,f, g,j, 7c, I, m, n, p, q, r, s, t, v. Endeav- 
or to sound each by itself, not using a, e, or u before or after them. 
Try to sound b and d in the word bird, c in the word cat, f in faith, 
g in go, k in kind, s in sail, j in judge, t in toil. 

Sound a in the words bate, bat, bar, ball. 

Sound e in mete, met. 

Sound i in pine, pin. 

Sound o in note, not, move. 

Sound u in tube, tub, full. 

What is the difference between the letters a, e, i, o, u, and the letters b, c, 
d ,f 9i h &c- ? 

Ans. The letters a, e, i, o, u, can be sounded easily alone, and are called 
vocals or vowels. The other letters are not easily sounded without the aid 
of vowels, and are called consonants. 

♦Let. the claos practise simultaneously, on the different sound of these letters, with 
& fall and distinct utterance. 
1* 



6 FAMILIAR LESSOHS* 

LESSON H. (Words.) 

Put the letters b, d, r, i, together in such a way that they will call 
to mind something which you have seen. In like manner place the 
letters h, s, r, e, o ; d, g, o ; iv, i, d, n ; r, n, i, a. 

When letters are put together so as to mean something, they form words. 
Before letters were invented, certain pictures or signs were used in writing, 
instead of words. 

Remark. — The whole number of words, consisting of 
about 40,000, is divided into eight different classes or sorts. 

LESSON III. (Classification of words.) Nouns, Pronouns. 

One class of words consists of the names of things which we can 
see or think of. 

Write or mention the names of the objects which you can see or think of. 

Does every object have a name ? Ans. A large number of objects of the 
same kind has a common name. For example ; there is a great number of 
horses, and but one common name for all, viz. : horse. 

Do any objects have a particular name which is applicable to no other 
" object ? Ans. Some objects are so important, that we wish to speak of them 
separately, and for convenience, we give them a particular name ; as, Wash- 
ington, Boston, Amazon, James, Charles, &c. 

Will you give particular names to some mountains ? cities ? rivers ? 
towns ? persons ? 

Do trees, birds, fish, and stones, have particular names ? Why not ? 

Words which denote the names of objects and things are 
called Nouns. 

Write the words /, thou, he, she, it, we, you, they, him, he, them, 
who, which. 

Are these words names of things ? Ans. They are not names or nouns, 
but they stand in place of nouns, and are called pronouns. 

Example. — I heard from my brother yesterday ; he was well. The 
word he is used to avoid repeating brother. 

LESSON IY. (Classification of words.) Yerbs. 

Write the words sings, runs, neighs. 

Do these words denote the names of objects ? What do they denote ? 
Ans. They denote what something does. What sings ? What runs ? What 

neighs ? 

Write other words which will denote what a man, a horse, a Hon, 
or a dog, does. 



FAMILIAR LESSONS. 7 

How does the word bird differ from the word sings ? Ans. The first is 
the name of a certain animal, the last denotes what the bird does. 

What is the difference between the words fox and runs f horse and 
neighs f dog and barks ? sun and shines t wind and blows f 

Words which denote what any thing does, has done, or will 
do, are called Verbs.* 

Remark. — The two classes of words explained, viz. : the' noun and the 
verb , comprise a large part of all the words in the English language. 

LESSON V. (Classification of words.) Adjectives. 

Write the words good, great, wise, prudent. 

Are these words nonns ? Why not ? Write each before the noun man. 
What do these words denote, when used before man ? Ans. They denote 
what hind' of a man, or the quality of a man. 

Write words which will show what kind of a house you livfi in — 
what kind of a book you hold in your hand — what kind of a day 
it is. 

These words which denote what kind or quality, are called 
Adjectives. 

Note — The -words an or a, and the are generally called articles, but as they resem- 
ble in their office the words one, this, that, &c, they are sometimes classed with adjec- 
tives which limit or restrict the meaning of nouns, and are called Definitive adjectives. 

What is the difference between the words horse and gray 1 Ans. The 
word horse is the name of an animal, the word gray denotes the kind, or 
quality of something. What is the difference between the words light 
and pleasant f boy and good f tree and high ? house and large ? 

Apply three adjectives to man; three to child; three to day ; three to 
night; four to horse; five to tree; three to sun. 

LESSON VI. (Classification of words.) Adverbs. 
Write the words pleasantly, sweetly, cheerfully. 

Can these words be joined to nouns ? In the expression, the sun shines, 
to which word can pleasantly be joined to make sense ? What kind of a 
word is shines ? " The bird sings sweetly." Which word shows how the bird 
sings ? " The night was very dark.'* Which word shows how dark the 
night was? What kind of a word is dark? "He came yesterday." 
Which word denotes the time ? With which word is yesterday connected ? 

* This is not designed as a complete definition of the verb. Oral explanation from 
the teacher, will be necessary to make the ofiice of the verb intelligible to the learner. 



8 FAMILIAR LESSONS. 

Words which denote manner, time, quantity, &c, are called 
Adverbs. 

There are three other classes of words, termed prepositions, see § 7 ; 
conjunctions, see § 12; interjections, see § 14; these comprise but 
few words compared with the classes which have been explained above. 

SUMMAEY. 

What is the number of words estimated to be in the English lan- 
guage ? 

Into what sorts or classes are these words divided, as explained 
in preceding lessons ? 

Name the Parts of Speech. Ans. The noun, the pro- 
noun, THE ADJECTIVE, THE VERB, THE ADVERB, THE PREPO- 
SITION, THE CONJUNCTION, and THE INTERJECTION. 

LESSON VK (The sentence.) 

Write on the board or slate, in separate columns, the following nouns and 
verbs. 

Nouns. — Wind, snow, stars. Verbs. — Shine, flies, flows. 

Place the nouns and the verbs together in such a way that they will make 
sense. How many things can be said with the six words above ? Words 
put together in such a manner as to express an idea, form a sentence ; 
as, The wind blows ; the stars shine. Write sentences, using the following 
words : 

Water, ice, trees, sun, horse, grow, melts, freezes, shines, dogs, 

children, bark, play, walk, men, boys, ride, rolls, ball. 

What parts of speech have you used in each sentence ? 

Note. — Every sentence contains at least one verb, and one noun, or something 
Standing for a noun. 

Write six sentences, nsing such nouns and verbs as you can 
recollect. 

LESSON VEX (Modifications.) 

Join an adjective to each of the nouns in the following sentences to 
denote some quality ; as, The oak falls ; join an adjective to the noun oak t 
find the sentence will read, " The sturdy oak falls." 

The — youth learns. The — children obey. 

The — sun shines. The — child weeps. 

The — bird sings. The — water flows. 



FAMILIAR LESSONS. \) 

Join an advert to each of the verbs in the sentences above ; as, The youth 
learns readily; readily is an adverb joined to the verb learns. Point out 
the adjectives, nmins, verbs, and adverbs, in the following sentences. 

Pine trees grow rapidly. The gentle wind blows softly. The little 
bird sings sweetly. The angry waves dash violently. The joyful 
tidings came to day. A wise man acts prudently. 

LESSON IX. (Formation of sentences?) 

Write in separate columns the following adjectives, nouns, verbs, and 
adverbs. 

Adjectives. — Pleasant, kind, proud, dark. 

Nouns. — Cloud, sun, parents, youth. 

Verbs. — Shines, hangs, conducts, provide. 

Adverbs. — Frowningly, brightly, carefully, unbecomingly. 

Place four of the words above together, so as to form a sentence ; as, The 
dark cloud hangs frowningly. 

LESSON X. (Object) 

Write on the board or slate, " The wind shakes the leaves." 

"Which noun denotes the thing that acts ? Ans. Wind. Which noun 
denotes the thing acted upon ? Ans. Leaves. Which word expresses the 
action of the wind upon the leaves ? Ans. The verb shakes. 

Point out the nouns which denote the actor, and the thing acted upon, in 
the following sentences. 

The sun melts the snow. The boy strikes the bell. 

The wind drives the ship. The hawk seizes the dove. 

The frost swells the ground. The rose perfumes the air. 

In what condition or relation is the noun " sun," in the first sentence ? Ans. 
In the condition or relation which denotes the thing that acts. In what 
state or relation is the word " snow " ? Ans. In the state or relation to denote 
the thing acted upon. 

The condition or relation of a noun in a sentence, is called 
its case. 

The noun which denotes the doer or the thing spoken of, is in the 
nominative case. 

The noun which denotes the thing acted upon, is in the objective 

case.* 

* Th9 subject of a verb in the passive form Is an exception to this remark. 



10 FAMILIAR LESSONS. 

Point out the nominative and objective cases in the sentences above. 

See §18. 

Note. — The cases of nouns need to be illustrated more full}' than the limits of these 
first lessons will permit. But the teacher will be able by a little oral instruction, to 
make the subject intelligible to young learners. In this connection maybe explained 
the difference between a transitive and an intransitive verb ; and also the number and 
gender of nouns. 

LESSON XL (Prepositions, $c.) 

Write, " Bain falls — the clouds." 
Place some word before " the clouds " to make sense. 
They went — Boston — the cars. 
Place a word before " Boston," and one before " the cars," to make 
sense. 

The words which have been supplied are called preposi- 
tions. For further explanation aiid exercises, see § 6. 

Write, " James — Charles — Thomas are brothers." " George reads — 
writes." What words should be supplied to connect James with Charles ? 
Charles with Thomas ? reads with writes ? 

He is happy because he is good. 
What word connects he is happy, with he is good f 
The part of speech used to connect sentences or words, is called 
the conjunction. See § 11. 

Interjections are exclamatory words ; as, ! ah ! alas ! See 
§14. 

LESSON XII. 

When the parts of speech and their offices are well understood, the learner can pro- 
ceed to the exercise of forming sentences, gradually extending them by joining 
qualifying words to the principal parts, according to the following method. 

Sentence. The wind drives. 

Join an adjective. — The tempestuous wind drives. 
Join an objective case. — The tempestuous wind drives the ship. 
Join an adverb. — The tempestuous wind drives the ship violently. 
Join a preposition and ( The tempestuous wind drives the ship violently 
a noun following. ( against the rocJcs. 

Extend the following sentences in a similar way. 
The horse draws — The scholar learns — ■ 

The sun warms — Birds build — 

The tree bears — The tiger seizes — 

Such exercises can be varied or extended at the pleasure of the teacher. 
Remark. — Exercises of this kind not only impart an interest to the 
study of Grammar, but also serve to facilitate the progress of the young 
learner, in acquiring a knowledge of the essential principles of language. 



FAMILIAR LESSONS* 11 

LESSONS FOR PARSING. 

LESSON I. 

Point out the nouns, verbs, and adjectives, in the lines below : 
Cassar, yesterday, shines, useful, dog, white, barks, runs, king, 
proper, rales, master, Cato, wise, sees, strives. 
Point out the adjectives and the adverbs in the same lines. 

Direction. — The noun which denotes that of which 
something is said, is in the nominative case. 

The bird sings. The dogs howl. Men labor. Time flies. The 
moon is bright. The stars twinkle. 

LESSON II. 

Direction. — Some adjectives are joined to nouns, to 
qualify their meaning ; as, A good man ; good qualifies man. 
Mention what the adjectives qualify in the following expressions : 

Tall trees. Pale moon. Lurid sky. The day is long. A mild 
disposition. A rapid current A florid countenance. The sky is 
blue. A fleet horse. A ferocious tiger. A stormy night. Time 
is short. 

lesson in. 

Direction. — A verb is used to assert something about 
that which its nominative denotes ; as, The rain falls ; the 
verb falls is used to assert something about rain. 

Point out the nominative case, and the word which is used to assert 
something. 

Charles reads. James studies. The farmer ploughs. The fire 
burns. The coachman drives. The scholar learns. Sweet music 
charms. The tall tree bends. 

LESSON IV. 

Direction. — The noun which follows a transitive * verb 
is in the objective case ; as, The miser loves gold ; gold is in 
the objective case. 

* For an explanation of transitive verbs, See § 3. 



12 FAMILIAR LESSONS. 

Point out the nouns in the objective case in the following sentences. 
Charles reads his book. James studies his lesson. The farmer 
ploughs his ground. The fire burns the wood. The coachman 
drives his team. The scholar gains knowledge. 

LESSON Y. 
Direction. — -Adverbs are joined to verbs, adjectives, 
and other adverbs, to modify their meaning. 

Note. — Adverbs may be generally known by asking how ? when? or how much ? 
the word that answers is the adverb. 

The bird flies, [how ?] Am. Swiftly ; swiftly is the adverb. He is very 
ill ; how ill ? the adverb answers. 

Point out the adverbs in the following sentences, and show to what words 
they are joined. 

The boat arrived to day. The ship was launched yesterday. 
I dislike his conduct exceedingly. I esteemed him too highly. He 
is very negligent. She sings sweetly. 

LESSON VI. 
Direction. — A preposition connects the noun following 
it, in sense, to some word preceding it ; as, He returnedyVom 
Boston ; from connects Boston with returned. 

Mention what words the prepositions connect in the following sentences. 
For a list of prepositions, see § 7. 

He dwells in the city. The ship has sailed for London. He was 
buried beneath the river. The boy stood on the burning deck. 
The soldiers were in the camp. The city was taken by the Ameri- 
cans. The hill slopes towards the East. The Mexicans were con- 
quered in the battle. 

LESSON vn. 

Point out the different parts of speech and show their relation. 

The Americans conquered the Mexicans in the battle at Palo 
Alto. The army under General Scott captured the fine city of 
Vera Cruz. The robin sings sweetly in the Spring. The flowers 
bloom in the meadow. The lambs skip over the hills. Spring is 
the most delightful season of the year. 



GRAMMAR. 



English Grammar is the science which teaches the prin- 
ciples of the English language. 

GENERAL DIVISIONS AND TEEMS. 

1. English Grammar is generally divided into four parts, — • 
Orthography, Etymology, Syntax, and Prosody, 

2. Orthography, (Greek orthos, "correct," and grapho, "to 
write/'') treats of letters, and teaches their power and proper use. 

3. Etymology, (Greek etumon, "true and proper use," and 
logos, " a word,") treats of words, and teaches their derivation, 
classes, and variations. 

4. Syntax, (Greek suntaxis, "the act of arranging,") treats 
of sentences, and teaches the proper construction of words in 
forming them. 

5. Prosody, (Greek prosodia,) treats of accent, quantity 
and versification. 

Note. — This division of the subject is not strictly adhered to in this work. 

2 



14 LETTEBS. — VOWEXS. 



PART I. 



ORTHOGRAPHY. 



LETTERS. 

6. A letter is a character used in writing or printing, to rep* 
resent an articulate sound. 

7. Before letters were invented, pictures or symbols were 
employed in writing, called hieroglyphics. 

8. The English alphabet consists of twenty-six letters, which 
are usually divided into two classes, called vowels and conso- 
nants. 

Note.— The word " Alphabet" is derived from alpha, beta, the names of 
the first two letters of the Greek Alphabet. The term has reference only to 
the arrangement of the letters; as, A, B, &c. 

VOWELS. 

9. Those letters which represent a free, uninterrupted sound, 
are called vowels, (Lat. vocalis, " that may be sounded " ;) as 
a, e, i, o, u; and w and y, when not occurring at the beginning 
of a word or a syllable. 

EXERCISES. 

1. Sound a in all without articulating the 11; sound a in at without articu 
lating the t; also, a in ape without articulating the^; also, a in arm without 
articulating the r. 

2. Sound the a in the following words ; first pronouncing the word, then 
omitting the letters which follow the a, then sounding the a alone. 

1 — a 2 — a 3 — a 4 — a. 

bate — ba — a bat — ba — a bar — ba — a ball — ba — a 

fate — fa — a fat — fa — a far — fa — a fall — fa — a 

mate — ma — a mat — ma — a mar — ma — a wall — wa — a 



CONSONANTS. — MUTES. — SEMIVOWELS, ETC. 15 

Treat the other vowels in a similar manner, in the following words : 
1 — e 2 — e 1 — * 2 — i. 

eke — e elk — e ice — i in — i 

mete — me — e met — me — e mice — mi — i mill — mi — i 

deep — dee — e set — se — e pine — pi — i pin — pi — i 

1 — o 2 — o 3 — o promiscuous. 

old - o off- o move - mo — o fate, fall, far, fat. 

hope - ho -o not-no-o prove- pro -o me, met. 

1 — u 2 — u 3 — u mite, did. 

tnbe-tn — u tub-tu-u full-fu-n note, nor, move, 

lute - In -n mug-mu-u pull-pu-u tune, tnn, full. 



CONSONANTS. 

10. Letters which are used only in connection with vowels 
for the purpose of articulation, are called consonants. (Lat. 
consonans, " sounding together.") 

11. B, c (hard,) g (hard,) k, p, £, are called mutes, — they 
represent no audible sound. 

12. O (soft,)/, g (soft,) A,y, r, s, v, x, z, are called semivowels, 
— they represent sounds obstructed by organs nearly closed. 

13. L, m, ?i, r, are called liquids, — they easily coalesce with 
the sound of other letters with which they are associated. 

EXERCISE. 

Pronounce ha, ha, pa, ta, ca, ga. 

Endeavor to sound b, k, p, t, c, g, without the a. What are these letters 
called ? Why ? 
Pronounce ef, ge,ja, re, se 1 ve, ex, ze. 

Sound f, g, h, j, r, s, v, x, z, without the e. Do these represent a full sound ? 
What are they called ? Why ? 

Pronounce the following words ; and as far as possible sound the consonants 
alone. 

1. mutes. 2. semivowels. 3. liquids. 

bat — b — t sauce — s — c lamp — 1 — m 

cap — c — p verge — v — g nor — n — r 

pat — p — t sex — s — x land — 1 — n 

quake — q — k jot— j — t man — m — n 



16 ORTHOGRAPHY. 

14. The consonants b, p, m, w, v, are called labials, (Lat. 
labia, " a lip,") because the lips are employed in articulating 
them. 

15. The consonants d, t, c (soft,) g (soft,) j, $, and z (sibilant 
or hissing,) are called dentals, (Lat. dens, " a tooth,") — the; 
are articulated by pressing the tongue upon the teeth. 

16. The consonants k, c (hard,) g (hard,) and^ (at the begin- 
ning of a syllable,) are called palatals — they are articulated 
bj pressing the tongue against the palate. 

17. W and y are consonants when they begin a word or a 
syllable. 



SOUNDS OF THE VOWELS * 



18. The vowel a has four sounds peculiar to itself; as, 

1. a in fate, 2. a in fat, 3. a in far, 4. a in fall. 
It is also used to represent the sound of e in many, and o in what. 

E 

19. The vowel e has two sounds .peculiar to itseii; as, 

1. e in mete, 2. e in met. 

It is also used to represent the second sound of a in there ; the second sound 
of i in England ; and the second sound of u in her. 

S 

20. The vowel i has two sounds peculiar to itself ; as, 

1. i in p£ne, 2. i in pin. 
It is also used to represent the first sound of e in machine and the second 
sound of u in bird. 



* The analysis of the sounds of the vowels and consonants here given is taken 
by permission from a pamphlet by E. M. Thurston, a.m., just published. 
A chart ingeniously exhibiting the same analysis, and recently preparedly 
Mr. T., is commended to those who wish to see a concise and philosophical 
representation of the elements and sounds of the English Language. 



SOUNDS OF THE CONSONANTS. 17 



21. Tne vowel o has three sounds peculiar to itself; as, 
1. o in note, 2. o in not, 3. o in move. 

It is also nsed to represent the second sound of u in dove, and the sound 
of w united with u in one. 

u 

22. The vowel u has three sounds peculiar to itself; as, 

1. u in twbe, 2. u in twb, 3. u in Ml. 
It is also use'd to represent the second sound of e in bwry ; the second sound 
of i in b asy ; the sound of w in qwoit, and the sound of yu in union. 

EXERCISE. 

Give the vowel sounds in the following words : 

Ale, arm, law, cat, bat, lard, hard, ball, fall, what, wasp, wash. 
Eel, me, elk, term, mild, mint, marine, brute, but, pull. 

SOUNDS OF THE CONSONANTS. 

23. Each of the following consonants and combinations of 
consonants has but one sound. 

1. b as in Site, Jc as in Site, p as in j?ail, I as in ?ate, r as in rate, v as in vain, 
sh as in s/iall, zh like s in pleasure, ng as in tiling, th sharp as in thm, ill flat as 
in thou,j as in t /oy, m as in man. 

The consonant h is an aspirate, and has one sound as in hand. 

In the word cupboard^ has the sound of b. 

In the word hallelujah/ has the sound of #. 

24. Each of the following consonants ha3 one sound peculiar 

to itself, and is used to represent one or more of the sounds of 

other consonants, as follows : 

d as in olate, and represents j as in soldier. 

/as in /an, " " v as in of. 

g as in #ave, " " j as gem. 

n as in note, " " ng as in si?agular. 

s as in sin, " " z as in his, sh as in swgar, and zh as in pleasure. 

t as in time, tt " sh as in nation, and ch as in nature. 

w as in wave, " " u as in brown. 

y as in yet, " M i as in tyrant. 

z as in zone, " " zh as in azure. 

Ch, also, has its own sound as in church, and represents the sound of sh as 
m machine, h as in chorus, and Jzw as in cAoir. 

Cand G are hard before a, o, «, r, ?, and soft before e, £, and #. 
2* 



18 ORTHOGRAPHY. 

SUBSTITUTES, OR EQUIVALENTS. 



CONSONANT SUBSTITUTES. 

25. Substitutes are characters which have no sound pecu- 
liar to themselves, but are used to represent the sound of other 
letters. 

EXAMPLES. 

1. The character c represents Jc before a, o, u, l,r; and the sound of s before 
e, i, and y ; the sound of z in sacrifice, and the -sound of sh as in ocean. 

Q represents the sound of Jc as in liquid. 
X u " ffz as in ezact, and z as in acanthus. 

Ph " " fas in phlegm, and v as in Stephen. 

Gh " " f as in cough, and Jc as in hougli. 

VOWEL SUBSTITUTES.* 

A a represents a as in Baalam. 

A e " long e as in Caesar, and short e as in diaeresis. 

A i " a as in plaid, e as in again, i long as in aisle, i short, 

as in villain, and u short, as in Britain. 

2. ^Lo represents the first sound of a as in gaol, and the second sound of o 
as in extraordinary. 

S. Au represents the second sound of a as in draught, and the first sound of 
a as in gauge, the third sound of a as in aunt, the fourth sound of a as in 
caught, the first sound of o as in hautboy, and the second sound of o, (or the 
fourth sound of a) as in lawrel. 

4. Aw represents a as in law Ay represents the first sound of a as in day 
and the second sound of e as in says. 

5. Ea represents the first sound of a as in steak, the third sound of a as in 
heart, the first sound of e as in tea, the second sound of e as in head, and the 
second sound of u as in vengeance. 

6. Ee represents the first sound of e as in tree, and the second sound of i as 
in been. 

7. Ei represents the first sound of a as in veil, the second sound of a as in 
their, the first sound of e as in deceit, the second sound of e as in heifer, the 
first sound of i as in height, and the second sound of i as in forfeit. 

8. Eo represents the first sound of e as in people, the second sound of e as in 
leopard, the first sound of o as in yeoman, the second sound of o as in George, 
and the second sound of u as in dungeon. 



* The compounds here termed substitutes are usually called diplithongs, or di- 
graph*, wfaan composed of two vowels ; triphthongs, when composed of three 
vowel*. 



VOWEL SUBSTITUTES. 19 

0. Eu represents the first sound of u as in dewce, and the third sound of u as 
in rhewm. 

10. Ew represents the first sound of o as in sew, and the first sound of u as 
in dew. 

11. Ey represents the first sound of a as in pre?/, and the first sound of e as 
in key. 

12. la represents the second sound of a as in partial, and the second souna 
of i as in mam'age. 

13. le represents the first sound of e as in grief, the second sound of e as in 
quotient, the first sound of i as in die, and the second sound of i as in sieve. 

14. li represents the first sound of i as in Pompew. 

15. Jo represents the second sound u as in nation. 

16. Iu represents the second sound of u as in Lucius. 

17. Oa represents the fourth sound of a as in broad, and the first sound of o 
as in boat. 

18. Oe represents the first sound of e as in antoeci, the second sound of e as 
in foetid, the first sound of o as in doe, and the third sound of o as in shoe. 

19. 01 represents the first sound of i as in choir, and the second sound of i 
as in tortoise. 

20. Oo represents the first sound of o as in door, the third sound of o as in 
fool, the second sound of u as in flood, and the third sound of u as in good. 

21. Ou represents the fourth sound of a as in ought, the first sound of o as 
in thowgh, the second sound of o as in cowgh, and the third sound of o as in 
soup, the second sound of u as in rough, and the third sound of u as in could. 

22. Ow representsthe first sound of o as in know. 

23. TJa represents the second sound of a as in guarantee, the third sound of 
a as in gward, and the first sound of u as in mantwamaker. 

24. Ue represents the second sound of e as in gwest, the thud sound of u as 
in true, the first sound of u as in blwe, and the second sound of u as in conqwer. 

25. TJi represents the first sound of i as in gwide, the second sound of i as in 
gi/ilt, the third sound of u as in fruit, and the first sound of u as in jwice. 

26. Uo represents the second sound of u as in liqwor. 

27. TJy represents the first sound of i as in "buy. 

28. Awe represents the fourth sound of a as in awe. 

29. Aye represents the first sound of a as in aye. 

30. Eau represents the first sound of o as in beaw, and the first sound of u 
as in beauty. 

31. Eou represents the second sound of u as in herbaceous. 
32.' Eye represents the first sound of i as in eye. 

33. leu represents the first so«rnd of u as in adiew. 

34. Iou represents the second sound of u as in graciows. 

35. lew represents the first sound of u as in view. 

36. Oeu represents the first sound of u as in manoeuvre. 

37. Owe represents the first sound of o as in owe. 



20 ORTHOGRAPHY. 



D I PHT HONGS. 

26. A diphthong is a union of two vowel sounds in the same 
syllable. There are three diphthongs in the language, viz : ay, 
the adverb of affirmation ; oi or oy, and ou or ow. 

In the first, a has its third sound, and y represents the first sound of e. In 
the second, o has its second sound, and i or y the first sound of e, as heard in 
the words toil, joy. In the third, o has its second sound, and u or w has the 
third sound of u, as heard in bound, town. 

Note. — The i and the y in the diphthongs, represent the first sound of e some- 
what clipped ; still it is the element of e as heard in me. 



WORDS. 

27. A word consists of one or more letters, and is used as 
the sign of an idea. 

28. A syllable is a word, or such a part of a word as is 
uttered by one articulation. 

29. A word of one syllable is termed a monosyllable ; of two 
syllables a dissyllable ; of three syllables, a trisyllable ; of more 
than three syllables, a 'polysyllable. 

DIRECTIONS FOR THE USE OF CAPITAL LETTERS. 

It was formerly the custom to begin every noun with a capital ; but^as this 
practice was troublesome, and gave the writing or printing a crowded and 
confused appearance, it has been discontinued. It is, however, very proper to 
begin with a capital, in the following instances, viz : 

SO. The first word of every book, chapter, letter, note, or 
any other piece of writing. 

31. The first word after a period ; and if the two sentences 
are independent, after a note of interrogation or exclamation. 

32. The appellations of the Deity. 

EXAMPLES. 

" God, Jehovah, the Almighty, the Supreme Being, the Lord, Providence, 
the Messiah, the Holy Spirit." 



DIRECTIONS FOR THE USE OF CAPITAL LETTERS. 21 

33. Proper names of persons, places, streets, mountains, 
rivers, ships, and common nouns personified. 

EXAMPLES. 
M George, York, the Strand, the Alps, the Thames, the Sea-horse." 

34. All titles of honor, professions, or callings ; also the names 
of religious sects, courts, societies, and public bodies of men. 

EXAMPLES. 

" Governor, Judge, Esquire, Baptists, Friends, Congress, the Supreme Judi 
cial Court." 

35. Names of months and the days of the week. 

36. Adjectives derived from the proper names of places ; as, 
" Grecian, Roman, English, French, and Italian." 

37. The first word of a quotation, introduced after a colon, or 
when it is in a direct form. 

EXAMPLES. 

"Always remember this ancient maxim: l Know thyself.*" "Our great 
Lawgiver says, ' Take up thy cross daily, and follow me.' " 

But when a quotation is brought in indirectly after a comma, 
a capital is unnecessary : as, " Solomon observes, ' that pride 
goes before destruction.' " 

The first word of an example may also very properly begin 
with a capital ; as, "Temptation proves our virtue." 

38. Every noun and principal word in the titles of books. 

EXAMPLES. 

" Johnson's Dictionary of the English Language ;" " Thomson's Seasons ;" 
" Rollin's Ancient History." 

39. The first word of every line in poetry. 

40. The pronoun ij and the interjection 0, are written in 
capitals ; as, "I write ;" " Hear, earth!" 

41. Other words, besides the preceding, may begin with cap- 
itals, when they are remarkably emphatical, or the principal 
subject of the composition. 



22 ORTHOGRAPHY. 



RULES FOE SPELLING. 

Note. — A few rules are given as a guide in the important art of spelling ,- 
but these are so general, that they apply to only a small part of the words of 
our language ; and even these rules admit of exceptions. 

42. Monosyllables ending withy, I, or s, preceded by a single 
vowel, double the final consonant ; as, staff 1 , mill, pass. 

The exceptions are of, if, as, is, has, was, yes, his, this, us, 
and thus. 

43. Words ending with y preceded by a consonant, commonly 
change y into i, on assuming an additional syllable beginning 
with a consonant ; as, happy, happ^7^/, happ?'?zess. 

44. The final y preceded by a consonant is generally changed 
into i before the endings es, er, est, and ed ; as, spy, spies ; car- 
ry, carried, carrier, carried; happy, happier, happiest 

45. Monosyllables, and words accented on the last syllable, 
ending with a single consonant preceded by a single vowel, com- 
monly double that consonant, when they take another syllable 
beginning with a vowel ; as, wi£, wi#y ; thm, ih'mnish ; regref, 
regretted ; begm, beginning. 

46. But if a diphthong precedes, or the accent is not on the 
last syllable, the consonant remains single. 

47. With respect to most of the words ending in I, which are 
not accented on the last syllable, usage is not uniform. Accord- 
ing to Perry and Webster, the I in such words should not be 
doubled. 

The prevailing usage, however, is in favor of doubling the I ; 
as, travel, travelling; cancel, cancelling; libel, libeller ; duel, 
duelling, dueller, duellist. 

The words kidnap and worship also, according to general 
usage, double the p ; as, kidnapping, worshipping. 

48. Words ending with any double letter, except double I, 
preserve the letter double on assuming the ending ness, less, ly 
or ful ; as, harmlessness, carelessly, successful. 

But words ending in double /, commonly drop one I on receiv- 
ing the syllables ness, less, &c. 



RULES FOR SPELLING. 23 

49. t Silent e is usually dropped in the following instances : 

1. Before the terminations able or ible ; as, blame, hlomable ; except whea 
preceded by c or g soft ; as, peaceable, changeaWe. 

2. Before ing, ish, ed, er, or est; as, -placing, slavish; love, loYed ; pale, 
paler, palest 

50. Silent e is usually retained in the following instances : 

1. Before the endings ness, less, ly and/W; as, paleness, close??/, peaceful. 

2. Before the ending meni ; as, abatement, chastisement, &c. 

The words judgment, abridgment, and acknowledgment, are commonly writ- 
ten without the silent e. 



PART. II. 

ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX. 

. Section I. 

ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 

51. Language consists of signs used to communicate ideas. 
These signs in spoken and written language are called words. 

52. "Words suitably arranged to make a complete sense, form 
a sentence. 

53. Sentences are simple or compound. A simple sentence 
consists of one proposition. A compound sentence consists of 
two or more propositions connected. 

54. The subject is that of which something is affirmed. 

55. The predicate is that which is affirmed. 

For example : " Trees grow ;" " trees " is the subject ; " grow * 
is the predicate. 



24 ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX. 

56. The analysis of a sentence consists in dividing it into the 
parts of which it is composed, and pointing out their relations. 
Thus : 

Sentence. Trees grow. 

Analyzed. " Trees " is the subject, because it is that of which something 
is affirmed. 
" Grow " is the predicate ; because it is that which is affirmed of trees. 

57. The subject explained, described, or limited, by one or 
more words, is called the modified or logical subject ; as, " Large 
trees of the forest grow." The subject "trees" is described, 
1. by "large ;" 2. by "of the forest." Large trees of the forest 
is the modified subject. 

58. The predicate modified by any word, phrase, or clause, 
is called the modified or logical predicate ; as, " Large trees of 
the forest grow rapidly in summer" " Rapidly " and " in sum- 
mer " modify the predicate " grow." 

59. An attribute is a word or expression forming a part of 
the predicate, and denoting some quality, state or office of the 
subject; as, "Glass is brittle" "The sea is in commotion" 
" Franklin was a philosopher" 

60. A phrase is an expression that consists of two or more 
words not forming a complete sentence. 

61. The simple propositions that form a compound sentence, 
are termed clauses. 



EXERCISE IN ANALYSIS. 

Model I. 

Sentence. Time files. 

Analyzed. It is a simple sentence, because it consists of but one proposition. 
" Time " is the subject, because it is that of which the action " flies " is 
affirmed. 
" Flies" is the predicate, because it is the action affirmed of " time." 

Note.-— In this sentence the subject and predicate are both unmodified. 
See 57. 



EXERCISE IN ANALYSIS. 25 

, Model IL 

Sentence. Life is short. 

It is a simple sentence. (Why ?) 

" Life " is the subject. (Why?) See 54. 

" Is short " is the predicate, because it is a property affirmed of " life." 

In this sentence, two words constitute the predicate, viz : " is " and " short." 
The word " short" denotes a property, or attribute, and the word "is" denotes 
that this attribute belongs to life. Hence is," is termed the copula (band,) 
because it unites the attribute and the subject. 

A few examples will illustrate this more clearly. 

Snow is white. "Is white" is the predicate. "White" is an attribute of 
snow. " Is " is the copula, because it unites the subject " snow " and the 
attribute " white." 

The sun is rising. " Is " is the copula, " rising " is the attribute, and " is ris- 
ing" is the predicate. 

62. The copula is commonly the word be, some of the forms 
of which are am, is, are, ivas, were, &c. A single word very 
often constitutes the predicate, which comprises in itself the 
copula and the attribute ; as 9 The wind blows, i. e. is blowing. 



SENTENCES TO BE ANALYZED. 

Vice is degrading. Virtue is ennobling. Ships sail. Ships 
are sailing. James writes. James is writing. Boys play. 
Boys are playing. Stars twinkle. Stars are twinkling. 

Model III. 

This model is designed to show how the predicate which comprises the ea~ 
pula and attribute in a single word, may be analyzed.* 

Sentence. Water flows, [customarily or continually.] 

Analyzed. " Water " is the subject, because it is that of which something 
is affirmed. 
" Flows " is the predicate, because it is the action affirmed. 



* The verb (except the substantive verb used as the copula,) is a mixed 
word, being resolvable into the copula and predicate [attribute,] to which it is 
equivalent ; as, The Romans conquered ; equivalent to the Romans were vic&h 
rtotw.— Whately. See also Watts, De Sacy, and Cramp. 



26 ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX. 

Predicate Analyzed. " Flows," i. e. "is flowing." 

" Is " is the copula ; " flowing " is the attribute. 

The copula unites the subject " water " and the attribute " flowing." 

SENTENCES TO BE ANALYZED. 

Water runs. liavens croak. Horses neigh. Bees hum- 
Flowers bloom. James reads. Charles works. Wine intoxi- 
cates. He studies. They smile. We sing. 

Model IV. 

Sentences which express command or entreaty. 

Sentences. Depart thou. Come. 

Analyzed. " Thou " is the subject, because it denotes the person com- 
manded. 

" Depart " is the predicate, because it expresses a command. 

" Come" is a word expressing command. The subject " Thou" or "ye" 
is omitted. 

" Come " is the predicate. 

11 Thou " or "ye" understood is the subject. 

Predicate Analyzed. " Depart," i. e. " be departing." " Be " is the copula ; 
" departing " is the attribute. 

[In sentences expressing command the subject is commonly omitted.] 

SENTENCES TO BE ANALYZED. 

Give thou. Do thou. Speak ye. Hasten. Send. Obey. 
Believe. Bead. Write. Study. 

Model V. 

Sentences in which questions are asked. 

Sentence. Is he alive f 

" He " is the subject, because it denotes the person concerning whom the in- 
quiry is made. 
"Is alive" is the predicate, because it expresses the inquiry. 
" Is " is the copula ; " alive " the attribute. 

SENTENCES TO BE ANALYZED. 

Is he dead? Are animals intelligent? Is honor sacred? 
Is friendship enduring? Is levity becoming? Is theft for- 
bidden ? 



§11.] PARTS OF SPEECH. 27 

CLASSIFICATION OF SENTENCES. 

63. Simple sentences or clauses may be divided into three 
classes ; viz. declarative, imperative, and interrogative, 

64. A declarative sentence is one in which something is di- 
rectly affirmed or denied ; as, The ships sail. 

65. An imperative sentence is one which expresses a com- 
mand, exhortation, or entreaty ; as, Obey ; let your moderation 
be known unto all men ; do come. 

66. An interrogative sentence is one in which a question is 
asked ; as, Whence art thou ? 

To these classes several others are sometimes added, such as exclamatory, 
conditional, &c. But these are modifications of the first class mentioned 
above. 

Note. — In the progress of the work, the sentence, the principal elements of 
which have been explained, will be gradually extended by joining to these 
elements modifying words and phrases. In connection with" this, the parts of 
speech will be presented in what is deemed to be the natural order of their 
union in the structure of language. 



Section II. 

PARTS OF SPEECH. 

67. The different sorts of words, of which language is 
composed, are called Parts of Speech. For example ; in 
the sentence " large trees grow rapidly in summer," "trees " 
and " summer " are called nouns ; " grow " is called a verb ; 
" large " an adjective, and " rapidly " an adverb. The fol- 
lowing are names given to the parts of speech ; 

NOUN. VEEB. 

Pronoun. Adverb. 

Adjective. Preposition. 

Conjunction. 

Interjection. 



28 ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX. [§ H« 

THE NOUN. 

68. A Noun is the name of an object; as, George, 
Manchester, tree. 

1. The word noun is derived from the Latin nomen, which signifies " name." 
The noun can be easily known by inquiring whether the word in question 
is the name of any thing that can be thought of, or spoken of. 

2. We can think of virtue, vice, goodness, time, light, darkness, — these words, 
being names of objects of thought, are therefore called nouns. 

3. We can think of persons, places, 7'ivers, mountains, &c. The words that 
designate these, are likewise called nouns. 

4. We can think of a word, letter, or .figure employed merely as a term, in- 
dependently of its usual signification ; as, me is a pronoun ; a has four sounds ; 
by is a preposition; and is a conjunction. Words, letters, or figures thus used 
are nouns. 

5. A clause or a phrase, expressing some event, action, or state, is often 
used as a noun ; as, To see the sun is pleasant ; How he escaped is not known. 

EXERCISE. 

To be written on a Blade Board or Slate. 

Write the names of the objects in a school room. 

Write the names of animals in a farm yard. 

Write the names of flowers in a garden. 

Write the names of trees in the forest. 

Write the names of the five senses ; as, Hearing, $c. 

Write the names of the metals ; as, Gold, $c. 

Write the names of the persons, places, and things, which you can see or 
think of. 

What part of speech has been used to denote the objects whose names have 
been written ? Why ? 

Place a noun before each of the following predicates. 

Model 
— is hard. — is steep. 

The flint is hard. The hill is steep. 

— is pleasant. — is kind. — is dark. — runs. 

— walks. — reads. — writes. — mows. 

— is high. — studies. — studies. — shines. 

69. The names of individual persons or things are called 
proper nouns ; as, Charles, Boston, April. 

70. Names given to whole classes are called common nouns ; 
as, animal, man, boy. 

[For a more particular classification, see 167, 168, &c.] 



§ II.] PRONOUNS. PERSON. NUMBER, ETC. 29 

Note. — Sections XV, and XVI, may be studied in connection with this 
section, if thought desirable. But it is recommended to study Part III, in con- 
nection with a review of Part II. 

PRONOUNS. PERSON. 

71. A pronoun is a word used instead of a noun ; as, He 
reads. She writes, /study. 

72. I, thou, he, she, it, and their plurals we, you, they, are 
called personal pronouns, because tliey are used to denote the 
relation of a person or thing in discourse. See 180. 

73. /is of the first person, because it denotes the speaker. 

74. Thou or you is of the second person, because it denotes 
the one spoken to. 

75. He, she, it, are of the third person, because they denote 
that which is spoken of. 

76. Most nouns are of the third person. When the speaker 
names himself, as, I, Paul ; or names the person spoken to, as, 
You, my brother ; then the nouns agree in person with the pro- 
nouns. Paul is in the first person, brother in the second. 



See Sections XVI, XVII, and XVIII. 
NUMBER. GENDER. CASE. - 

77. A noun or a pronoun which denotes but one person or 
thing is of the singular number ; if it denotes more than one, 
it is of the plural number. 

78. The plural number of nouns is generally formed by 
adding 5 or es to the singular ; as bird (singular,) birds (plural.) 

[For variations from this rule, see Section XVI, 187 — 208.] 

79. The plural of pronouns is represented by a different word 
from the singular. The plural of /is we ; the plural of thou is 
you or ye ; the plural of he, she, it, is they. 

80. Gender denotes a distinction in sex. 

81. The mascidine gencier denotes objects of the male kind. 



30 ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX. [§ II. 

82. The feminine gender denotes objects of the female kind. 

83. The neuter gender denotes things which are neither male 
nor female. See 208, 209, 210. 

84. Case denotes the relation of a noun or pronoun to 
some other word in a sentence. See 217, 218, 219. 

85. There are three principal cases ; Nominative, Possessive, 
and Objective. 

86. The nominative case denotes the subject of a proposition. 
For other offices of the nominative, see 218, 1, 2, 3. 

87. The possessive case denotes that to which something be- 
longs. 

88. The objective case denotes the object of a transitive verb 
or preposition. See 92. 

To these principal cases may be added the case independent. See 224. 
Nouns or pronouns which have no relation to the subject or predicate of a 
sentence, are properly said to be in the case independent or absolute. 

EXERCISE. 

[Mention the nouns and pronouns in the following sentences, and give the 
number, gender, and case of each.] 

Planets revolve. Soldiers march. Leopards are spotted. 
Death is approaching. Civility is pleasing. Thomas is obedi- 
ent ; he works ; he reads ; he is diligent. You eat ; you drink ; 
you sleep. Locusts are destructive. Labor fatigues. 

For the Board or Slate. 
[Write a noun or pronoun in the plural number before each of the following 
expressions :] 

— are good. — are pleasant. — walk. — sleep. 

— neigh. — plough. — reap. — grow. 

— bloom. — are ripe. — are sweet. — rule. 

— are indolent. — disobedient. 

REVIEW. 

Mention the parts of speech. Define a noun. What nouns are called 
proper ? Common ? Define a pronoun. What does a noun or pronoun in 
the singular number denote ? In the plural ? How is the plural of nouns 
generally formed ? What is the plural of the pronoun I ? Thou V He, she. it ? 
What does gender denote ? What do the different genders denote r What 
does case denote ? Mention the cases, and what each denotes. 



§ IK.] THE VERB. 31 



Section III. 

THE VERB. 

89. Verb, from the Latin verbum, signifies " a word," "or the word ;" so 
termed from its importance in speech. 

90. A verb is a word by means of which something is 
affirmed. 

EXAMPLES. 

Tlie horse 7*w*s. Which word is used to affirm the action of the horse, or to 
express what the horse does ? 

Tlie bird flies. Which word is used to affirm the action of the bird ? 

The worm creeps. Which is the verb ? Why ? 

The wolf howls. Which word denotes the thing that acts, or the actor ? 

The bee hums. W T hich word denotes the actor ? Which is used to affirm 
the action ? 

EXERCISE. 

[Write a verb after each of the following nouns to affirm something.] 

Model 

The wind — The horse — 

The wind blows. The horse neighs. 

The waves — The sun — The dog — The rain — 

The day — Birds — The lion — The ships — 

Fire — Flowers — Trees — Stars — 

[Point out the verb in the following expressions.] 

The moon rises. The sun sets. 

The child reads his book. The sword kills. 

The loud thunder peals. The waves dash violently. 

91. Yerbs may be divided into two general classes, transitive 
and intransitive. See 232 — 238. 

92. A transitive verb is one which requires an object to 
complete the sense. 

EXAMPLES. 

The sun warms the earth. If we should say the sun warms, the sense would 
be incomplete. To complete the assertion, it is necessary to supply some 
word to limit the meaning of the verb. The word proper to be supplied is 
termed the object. " The sun warms " (what?) the earth. 



82 ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX. [§ III. 

" The wind drives " (what ?) the snow. 

" Heat melts " (what ?) wax. What is the object ? 

" Fire consumes " (what ?) wood. What kind of a verb is consumes ? 

EXERCISE. 

[Supply a transitive verb in each of the blank places.] 
Subjects. Objects. Subjects. Objects. Subjects. Objects 

George — play. Trees fruit. Children — — books. 

Water — - — thirst. Food hunger. Eyes light. 

Teeth — food. Diamond glass. Water fire. 

93. An intransitive verb is one that does not require an ob- 
ject to complete the sense ; as, " Waves dash." " Ships 
sail." " He sleeps." 

94. Verbs have various forms ; 1, to denote the manner of 
asserting, called mode ; 2, to express the time of an action, called 
tense; 8, to denote the number or person of the subject. These 
are explained in Part III. See Sections XXI and XXII. 

Note. — In the exercises of Part II only one mode of the verb occurs, called 
the indicative, because it is used to indicate or declare something. Two tense 
forms only are used in this part. 1, The present tense, which denotes the pres- 
ent time of an action or event; as, Iw % ite. 2, The imperfect tense, which de- 
notes the past time of an action or event ; as, I wrote. The person of the verb 
corresponds with the person of its subject. 

Example of Forms of the Verb used in Part L 

INDICATIVE MODE. 
PRESENT TENSE. 

Singular. Plural. 

1st person, I write. We write, 

2d " Thou writest. Ye or you write. 

3d " He writes. They write. 

IMPERFECT TENSE. 

Singular. Plural, 

1st person, I wrote. We wrote. 

2d " Thou wrotest. Ye or you wrote. 

3d " He wrote. They wrote. 

Note. — She or it, or any noun of the third person, may be used in placr 
of he, in conjugating the verb. 



§ IV.] THE PROPOSITION. 83 

Forms of the Verb be in the Present and Imperfect Tenses of tie 
Indicative Mode, 

PRESENT TENSE. 

Singular. Plural. 

1st person, I am. "VVe are. 

2d " Thou art. Ye or you are. 

8d " He is. They are. 

IMPERFECT TENSE. 

Singular. Plural. 

1st person, I was. We were. 

2d " Thou wast. Ye or you were. 

3d " He was. They were. 

95. A verb in the infinitive mode is preceded by the word 
to ; as, to be ; to write ; to love ; to begin, &c. 

96. A verb in any form, but that of the infinitive mode, is 
called a finite verb. 

97. The subject of a finite verb is the same as the subject 
of the proposition in which it stands; as, "Soldiers march; 99 
soldiers is the subject of the verb march; it is also the subject 
of the proposition. 

Section IV. 

THE PKOPOSITION. 

98. The principal elements of every proposition are the sub' 
feet and 'predicate. 

SUBJECT. 
See 54, Sec. I. 

99. The subject is a noun, or some word or expression used 
as a noun. 

100. Number, person, gender, and case, belong to the subject 

in common with other nouns. 

Note. — The grammatical relation of the subject is indicated by the fol- 
lowing Rule. 

EULE I. 

101. The subject of a finite verb must be in the nomina- 
tive case. See 218. 



84 ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX. [§ iy. 

Examples. — " Flowers bloom." "Flowers." is the subject of the propo 
sition, and also the grammatical subject of the finite verb bloom. See 96, 97, 

" To lie is base." The subject is the infinitive, "to lie," used as a noun 
in the nominative case. 

ANALYSIS AND PARSING. 

Sentences should be analyzed before parsing the words. 

The following questions may serve as a guide in parsing nouns. 1. Why 
called a noun ? 2. Proper or common ? Why ? 3. What person ? 4. What 
number ? Why V 5. What gender ? Why ? 6. What case ? Why ? 

Model of Parsing a Noun in the Nominative Case. 
Sentence. Leaves shaJce. 

Analyzed. It is a simple proposition. " Leaves" is the subject, because it 
is that of which something is affirmed. 

" Shake " is the predicate, because it is the action affirmed. 

Predicate analyzed. " Shake," i. e, "are shaking." " Are " is the copula, 
and " shaking" is the attribute. See Model II. Sec. I. 

The Noun Parsed. " Leaves " is a noun, because it is the name of some- 
thing — common, because it is the name given to a class of objects — of the 
third person, because it denotes that which is spoken of — of the plural num- 
ber, because it denotes more than one — in the nominative case, because it 
denotes the subject. Rule I. 

SENTENCES. 

Children play. Foxes bark. Masters teach. Caesar con- 
quered. Pompey fled. Water runs. Air invigorates. Ice 
melts. Gold glitters. Kings rule. I teach. They learn. 

THE PREDICATE. 
See 55, Sec. I. 

102. The predicate is a verb, or some form of the verb Be, 
(called copula,) and an attribute. 

Examples. — Grass grows. "Grows" is the predicate, because it is the 
action affirmed. 

The day is pleasant. "Is pleasant" is the predicate, because it is that 
which is affirmed of day. The verb "is" is the copula, and "pleasant" is 
the attribute. 

103. When the attribute is a noun it is in the same case as 
the subject ; as, " Cicero was an orator ; " orator is in the same 
ease as Cicero. 



§ IV. j ANALYSIS AND PARSING. 35 

104 If the subject is in the nominative case it is called the 

subject nominative ; and the noun that is the attribute of it is 

called the predicate nominative. 

Examples. " Newton was a philosopher." " Newton " is the subject nomi 
native, and "philosopher" is the predicate nominative. 

" David was king of Israel." " King" is the predicate nominative. 

ANALYSIS AND PARSING. 

Rule II. 

105. A noun in the predicate after an intransitive verb 
is in the same case as the subject when both words refer to 
the same person or thing ; as a Paul was an apostle" 

M Apostle " stands in the predicate, and denotes the same person as " Paul," 
the subject. It is therefore in the same case. See Rule II, Syntax. 

Model of Parsing a Predicate Nominative. 

Sentence. — Milton was a poet. 

Analyzed. " Milton " is the subject. " Was a poet," is the predicate, 
"Poet" is the predicate nominative. 

Predicate Nominative Parsed. " Poet " is a common noun, third person, 
singular, masculine gender, and the predicate nominative, because it denotes 
the same person as Milton. Rule. — "A noun in the predicate," &c. 

SENTENCES. 

Venus is a planet. Orion is a constellation. Washington 
was a statesman. Arnold was a traitor. Lycurgus was a law- 
giver. Virgil was a poet. Learning is a treasure. 

Note. -— The grammatical relation of a finite verb is expressed in the fol- 
owing Rule. 

ANALYSIS AND PAPvSING. 

Rule III. 

106. A finite verb must agree with its subject nomina- 
tive in number and person ; as, I write; he writes. 

The verb write is of the first person singular, because /, its subject, is of the 
first person singular, Writes has the ending s to agree with its subject he, 
which is of the third person, and singular number. See Rule IV, Syntax. 



36 ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX. T§ Iy# 

Model of Parsing a Finite Verb. 

Sentence. — Children love 'play' 

Analyzed. " Children " is the subject ; " love " is the predicate ; " play " is 
the object of the verb " love." 

Verb Parsed. " Love " is a transitive verb, because it requires an object ; 
in the indicative mode, because it is used to indicate or declare something ; in 
the present tense, because it denotes the present time of an action ; third per- 
son, plural, because its subject, children, is in the third person, plural. Rule. 

SENTENCES. 

The tempest raged. The storm ceases. The beasts fled. 
The morning comes. The day dawns. The sun appears. The 
wind subsides. Gold is a metal. War is a calamity. Peace 
is a blessing. Caesar conquered. Pompey fled. 

Examples to be corrected by Eule III. 

[Give the reason in each instance why the example is wrong.] 

I goes ; I walks ; I is ; I art. Thou loves ; thou write ; thou 
hate ; thou trembles. He, she or it desire ; he commend ; she 
dress ; it rain. We finds ; we sees the .clouds ; we dreadeth 
the cold. Ye or you studies ; you ploweth the field ; you runs 
fast. They playeth ; they strikes the ball ; they sells corn. 

A soft answer turn away wrath. The pupils loves study. 
Evil communications corrupts good manners. The smiles of a 
hypocrite hides his wickedness. These boxes weighs thirty 
pounds. A mixture of salt and vinegar make a good bath. 
Adjectives belongs to nouns. 

COMPOSITION. 

Direction. — Write the composition in a plain neat hand, leaving a wide 
margin on the left side of the page. Make a period at the close of every com- 
plete sentence. 

Write six predicates to each of the following subjects. 

Model. 

Subject — sun — 
The sun shines. The sun gives light. 



§ V.J MODIFIED SUBJECT. — THE ADJECTIVE. 87 

The sun warms the earth. The sun melts the snow. 

The sun dries the ground. The sun is eclipsed by the moon. 

A man. A bird. A boy. A child. 

REVIEW. 

What does " verb " signify ? Into what two general classes are verbs di- 
vided ? What is a transitive verb ? Give an example of a transitive verb. 
What is an intransitive verb ? Give an example. What is the form of the 
verb to denote mannercalled? To denote time ? Give the forms of " write," 
in the indicative mode, present tense. In the imperfect tense. Give the 
forms of the verb be in the present and imperfect tenses. How is a verb in 
the infinitive mode known ? What is understood by finite verb ? What 
are the principal elements of a proposition? What part of speech is generallv 
used as the subject of a proposition ? What is Eule I ? What part of speecn 
generally forms the predicate ? What must be used with the verb be to fomi 
a predicate ? What case is a noun in, when used as an attribute of the sub- 
ject? What case is the subject generally in? What is this case called? 
What is the case of the attribute called ? Give Rule II. Give Rule III. 



Section V. 

MODIFIED SUBJECT. 

Note. — If the learner has gained a clear idea of the principal elements of 
a sentence, viz., the subject and predicate, he is now prepared to advance 
another step in the construction of a sentence. He will find that each ele- 
ment can be extended by the addition of words, to limit or modify its mean- 
ing. As he will often meet with the word "modify," it is important that he 
should have a clear understanding of its meaning. As used in this book, to 
modify signifies "to restrict," "to qualify," "to limit," "to describe," "to 
explain." It has reference to the influence which a word or phrase has on 
the meaning of some other word with which it is connected. 

107. The subject explained, described or limited by one 
or more words, is called the modified or logical subject. 

I. The Subject modified by Adjectives. 

THE ADJECTIVE. 

108. An adjective is a word joined to a noun or pronoun, 
to qualify, describe, or limit its signification. 

109. Adjectives may be divided into two general classes, de- 
scriptive and DEFINITIVE. 

110. A descriptive adjective is one that expresses a quality 
of an object. 

4 



88 ETYMOLOGY A1SD SYNTAX. [§ T. 

Examples. — Good is an adjective ; it expresses a quality of every persoc 
or thing to which it is applied ; as, 

Good men. Good friends. Good fruit. 

Good houses. Good scholars. Good farms. 

Why is good an adjective ? Ans. It denotes the quality or character of 
men, fruit, &c. 

EXERCISE, 

Join the adjective had to such nouns as you can recollect; also the adjec- 
tives, 

Sweet — Bitter — Idle — 

Hard— Small— Selfish — 

Great — Round — Hungry — 

Join three adjectives to each of the following nouns. 





Model, 






— sun. 




Hffht sun. 


Glorious sun. 


Cloudless sun. 


moon. 


— parents. 


— tree. 


home. 


— rose. 


— house, 



Point out the descriptive adjectives in the following expressions. 

The lofty sky. The silver moon. 

The silent orb. The dark cloud. 

The shaggy brow. The turbid stream. 

The auburn locks. The dashing waves. 

The impetuous temper. The rosy morn. 

111. Definitive adjectives are those which serve to define or 
limit the meaning of nouns or pronouns. 

112. These are an or a, the, one, two, three, &c, this, that, 
these, those, bothy each, every, either, neither, some, other, any, one, 
all, such, much, many, none, same, few. 

Note. — 1. An or a and the, are called articles, and in parsing may be 
regarded as such. An is from a Saxon word which signifies one. 

2. An is used before words beginning with a vowel sound. A is used 
before words beginning with a consonant sound ; as, An industrious man, a 
man, an hour, a union. Union begins with the sound of y. 



§ v.] COMPOSITION. 89 



EXERCISES. 

Point out the definitive adjectives in the following expressions, and desig 
nate those which are called articles. 

A tree. This watch. Every hour. 

An apple. This gold watch. Every good man. 

A high tree. That monster. Those tyrants. 

The world. That bloody man. All lions. 

The good man. Each day. Another evil. 

COMPOSITION. 

Let each sentence contain at least one descriptive adjective. 

Model 
Theme. The rose. 
The fragrant rose perfumes the air. It is opening its sweet flower to the 
morning sun. Will the mower cut down the fair rose ? The pale rose withers 
and dies. 

Themes. 

The kite. The hawk. The bird. The morning. 

Remark. — An adjective used with the copula, to form a 
predicate, is called a predicate adjective. See Model II, Sect. I. 

Examples. — " The sea is rough." " Rough," with the copula "is," forms 
the predicate ; it is, therefore, called a predicate adjective. 

"The wind is cold." "Cold" is the predicate adjective, and describes 
"wind." 

ANALYSIS AND PARSING. 

The following questions may serve as a guide in parsing the adjectives. 
Why called an adjective ? Is it a descriptive, definitive, or predicate adjec- 
tive ? What does it describe or limit ? 



Rule IV. 

113. An adjective belongs to the noun or pronoun which 
it qualifies or defines. See Rule XV, Syntax. 

Model 
Sentence. — Gentle manners are pleasing. 
Analyzed. "Manners" is the subject; "gentle manners" is the modified 
subject, because "manners" is described by the adjective "gentle." "Are 



40 ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX. [§ VI> 

pleasing" is the predicate. "Are" is the copula; "pleasing" is the attri 
bute. 

Adjectives Parsed. "Gentle" is a descriptive adjective, because it quali- 
fies "manners," to which it belongs according to the Rule. " Pleasing" is a 
predicate adjective, because it forms with the copula " are " the predicate. It 
is a descriptive adjective, and belongs to "manners." 

SENTENCES. 

The cool breeze is refreshing. The morning sun was cloud- 
ed. The loud thunder pealed. The red lightning flashed. The 
blooming rose is fragrant. That tall tree bends. A little learn- 
ing is dangerous. These men are angry. 

Note. — The modification of nouns and pronouns, by participles, is ex- 
plained in Part III, Sec. XXIV. 

REVIEW. 

What is the modified subject ? What is the first modifier of the subject ? 
Define -the adjective. Into what classes are adjectives divided? What is a 
descriptive adjective ? What is a definitive adjective ? Which of the defini- 
tive adjectives are called articles t What is a predicate adjective ? Repeat 
Rule IV. 

Section VI. 

II. The Subject modified by a Noun or Pronoun in Apposition, 

114. The subject may be modified in the second place by a 

noun or pronoun, used as an explanatory term. 

Examples. — " Milton, the poet, was blind." " The poet " modifies " Mil- 
ton," by indicating the individual and his office or rank. The noun so used is 
said to be in apposition. A clause in apposition sometimes does the same 
office ; as, The question, how the injury can be repaired, is now to be considered. 

ANALYSIS AND PARSING. 

Rule V. 

115. A noun or pronoun, limiting another noun and sig- 
nifying the same person or thing, is put by apposition in the 
same case. See Rule I, Syntax. 

Model 

Sentence. — Ccesar, a Roman general, was victorious. 

Analyzed. "Caesar" is the subject. " Caesar, a Roman general," is the 

modified subject. "General" is an explanatory term, denoting the office of 

Caesar, and is limited by the adjectives " a," and " Roman."^ " Was victorious/' 

is the predicate. 



§ VI.] MODIFIED SUBJECT. 41 

Parsed, " General" is a common noun, third person, singular, masculine 
gender, nominative case, and in apposition with Csesar by Rule V. 

SENTENCES. 

Marius, a Roman, was courageous. Themistocles, an Atheni- 
an, was sagacious. Dionysius, the tyrant, was cruel. The em- 
peror Napoleon was ambitious. Homer, the celebrated poet, 
was blind. 

III. The subject modified by a Noun or Pronoun, in the posses- 
Hve case. 

116. The subject may be modified by a noun or pronoun in 
the possessive case ; as, " The giant's arm prevailed." " Giant's " 
limits " arm," by denoting whose arm is referred to. The arm 
prevailed. Whose arm ? Answer, the giant's. " Giant's " 13 
in the possessive case. 

117. The possessive case is commonly formed by adding an 
apostrophe (') and the letter s; as " Virtue's reward." 

118. Plural nouns ending in s, omit the s after the apos- 
trophe ; as, " Eagles' wings." 

119. The possessive case of the personal pronouns is as 
follows : 



SINGULAR. 




Nominative. I Thou He 


She It 


Possessive. my thy his 


her its 


PLURAL. 




Nominative. We Ye or you 


They 


Possessive. our your 


their 


ANALYSIS AND PARSING. 


Rule VI. 





120. The possessive case limits the noun which denotes 
the object possessed. See Rule VIII, Syntax. 

Model. 
Sentence. — My courage failed. 
Analyzed. " Courage " is the subject, limited by " my." " My courage ,; 
is the modified subject. " Failed ' is the predicate. 
4* 



42 ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX. [§VIL 

Possessive Case Parsed. "My" is a personal pronoun, in the possessive 
case, and limits "courage," by Rule VI. 

SENTENCES. 

The earth's orbit is elliptical. Saturn's ring is wonderful. 
The ship's crew mutinied. The gentleman's servant abscond- 
ed. His hard heart relented. My good friend Davis was un- 
fortunate. 

COMPOSITON. 

Sentences to be written, each of which shall include one of the following 
nouns, in the possessive case. 

Model. — Cicero. 
All admire Cicero's orations. 
Washington. Franklin. Milton. Columbus. Birds. Eagles. 
Lion. The sun. A miser. Boys. Children. Men. 

The learner can change the form of the sentence written by using the 
preposition of, instead of the possessive case, and not alter the sense ; as, "All 
admire the orations of Cicero" instead of " Cicero's orations." 

REVIEW. 

What is the second modifier of the subject ? (114.) Give an example. Re- 
peat Rule V. What is the third modifier of the subject ? (116.) How is the 
possessive case formed ? How is the possessive of plural nouns ending in s, 
formed ? Repeat Rule VI. 

Section VII. 

IV. Subject modified by an Adjunct. 

121. The subject may be limited by a noun or pronoun con- 
nected with it by a preposition. 

THE PEEPOSITION. 

Note. — Preposition signifies "a placing before," or "a place before," 
(Latin, prce, " before," and positio "a placing," or a "place.") 

122. The preposition is a part of speech commonly used 
before a word, to connect it in sense with some other word 
or expression. 

Examples. — " The snow lies — the ground." The word which should stand 
before ground, to connect it in sense with lies, is called a preposition. The 
snow lies on the ground. 



§ VII.] 



THE PREPOSITION. 



48 



"He went — England— Cork." England may be connected with went by 
the preposition from. Cork may be connected with went by to. He went 
from England to Cork. 

123. The following is a list of words usually considered 
prepositions. 

LIST OF PREPOSITIONS. 



Above. 


Below. 


From. 


Throughout. 


About. 


Beneath. 


In. 


Till. 


Across. 


Beside, or 


Into. 


To. 


After. 


Besides. 


Notwithstanding. 


Toward, or 


Against. 


Between, or 


Of. 


Towards. 


Along. 


Betwixt. 


Off. 


Under. 


Amid, or 


Beyond. 


On. 


Underneath. 


Amidst. 


By'. 


Over. 


Until. 


Among, or 


Concerning. 


Overthwart. 


Unto. 


Amongst. 


Down. 


Past. 


Up. 


Around. 


D'uring. 


Respecting. 


Upon. 


At. 


Ere. 


Round. 


With. 


Athwart. 


Except. 


Save. 


Within. 


Before. 


Excepting. 


Since. 


Without. 


Behind. 


For. 


Through. 


Worth. 



124. Other words and combinations of w r ords are sometimes 
used as prepositions ; such as, as to, according to, &c. 

125. The w r ord that immediately follows a preposition is 
called its object; as, Above the earth. 

126. A preposition with its object, is called the adjunct* of 
the word to w^hich it is joined in sense, and serves to limit a 
noun in various ways ; some of which are as follows : 

1. By expressing quality or state; as, A man of piety ; a state of Miss; hab- 
its of industry. In such instances, the adjunct is equivalent to an adjective, 
and one may be used for the other without affecting the sense ; as, A man of 
piety, or a pious man ; a state of bliss, or a blissful state ; industrious habits, 
or habits of industry. 

2. By denoting place ; as, Plants in the garden blossom earlier than plants 
in the field; waters under the earth; a storm at sea. 

3. By denoting the state or condition of an object; as, A nation in debt; a 
person in distress ; a ship under sail. 

4. By denoting possession ; as, The trials of life; that is, life's trials; tli8 
sons of Aaron. The adjunct of possession is generally equivalent to a noun 
in the possessive case. 

* The term adjunct is also applied to a verb in the infinitive mode. 



44 ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX. [§ VII. 

Additional Examples. — "A man of sorrow;'' 1 "a man in affliction." 
The adjuncts "of sorrow," and "in affliction," modify man; that is, they de- 
scribe the condition of a man. They are equivalent to the adjectives, sorrouh. 
ful, afflicted. 

" The prisoner at the bar.'' 1 The adjunct " at the bar" modifies prisoner. 

" An army on the march." How is army modified ? What does the ad- 
junct denote V 

"A house with green window-blinds ; " house is modified by the adjunct, 
"with green window-blinds," and "window-blinds" is modified by "green." 

"Spring is the time to sow. 11 The infinitive "to sow" is the adjunct of 
" time." 

EULE VII. 

127. Prepositions connect words and show the relation 
between them. 

Rule VIII. 

128. The object of a preposition must be in the objective 
case. See Rule XXIII, Syntax. 

ANALYSIS AND PARSING. 

Model 
Sentence. — Thomson's description of a storm is admirable. 

Analyzed. — " Description " is the subject, modified — 1, by " Thomson's," 
(a noun in the possessive case,) and 2, by the adjunct " of a storm." 
"Thomson's description of a storm" is the modified subject. "Is admira- 
ble" is the predicate, consisting of the copula "is," and the attribute "ad 
mirable." 

Jlie Preposition parsed. "Of" is a preposition. It is placed before the 
noun "storm," to show its relation to "description." It, therefore, connects 
" storm " and " description." Rule VII. 

Object of the Preposition parsed. " Storm " is a noun, third person, singu- 
lar, neuter, objective case, by Rule VIII. - 

SENTENCES. 

The learner should be particular to point out the adjunct in each sentence, 
and explain its use, before parsing the preposition. 

The landscape before us is delightful. The black clouds 
above our heads are terrific. Death in a good cause is honor- 
able. The orations of Demosthenes, the Grecian orator, are 
inimitable. The sun's light at mid-day is dazzling. He has 
a strong desire to see his friend. Have you a wish to come ? 
See Model V, Sect. I. 



§ VII."] THE PREPOSITION. 45 

V. The Subject modified by a Clause, 

129. The subject is often modified by a Clause, which serves 

— 1, to express quality ; or, 2, to denote a state or condition ; 

or, 3, to restrict the meaning of the subject to some particular 

person, place, time, or thing. 

Note. — The limiting clause is often equivalent to an adjective, an adjunct^ 
or a noun. 

Examples. — " The tree wliich bears sweet apples, is decaying." The subject 
" tree " is modified by the clause " which bears," &c. The whole expression, 
" The tree which bears sweet apples," is equivalent to the phrase, " the sweet 
apple tree." 

" The man who lives contented, is happy." The clause " who lives," &c. 
denotes a condition of the subject "man." It is nearly equivalent to the ex- 
pression, " The contented man is happy," or to the expression, " If a man lives 
contented, he is happy." 

" The question, who goes there ? was often repeated by the sentinel." The 
clause *' who goes there ? " serves to restrict the meaning of the subject 4{ ques- 
tion," and stands in apposition with it. 

" The bridge, which the army crossed, was afterwards destroyed." The clause 
11 which," &c, restricts the subject to a particular bridge. 

" The time when Lafayette visited this country, is remembered with much in- 
terest." How is the subject " time " limited V 

COMPOSITION. 

Supply adjuncts, or clauses, to fill the blank places. 

Model. 

The terror — — — overpowered his faculties. 

The terror of an eternal judgment, overpowered his faculties. 
He, — — — — should build his house upon a rock. 
He, who would act like a wise man, should build his house upon a rock. 

Washington — — died in the year 1799. 

Columbus — — was a native of Genoa. 

Youth — — often find an early grave. 

The pleasures — — are transient, 

The man — — will be esteemed. 

The counsel — — should be respected. 

REVIEW. 

What is the fourth modifier of the subject ? "What is a preposition ? _ V/hat 
is the word following a preposition called ? What is a preposition with its 
object called ? To what else is the term adjunct applied in this work ? What 
is the fifth modifier of the subject called 1 



46 ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX. [§ VIII, 

Section VIII. 

MODIFIED PREDICATE. 

Kote. — The learner has seen how the subject of a sentence is capable of 
being extended by modifying words, clauses, and phrases. He is now to at- 
tend to the other equally important division of a sentence, viz., the predicate. 

130. The predicate modified by any word, phrase, or clause, 
is called the modified or logical predicate. 

Examples. — " The husbandman tills the ground.'' 1 " Tills" is the predi- 
cate; but the expression "The husbandman tills," would be incomplete 
without the addition of some other word. Tills what? Answer, "the 
ground." " Ground " is, therefore, the modifying word, and is the object of 
the transitive verb " tills." 

" The swallow flies swiftly through the air." " Flies " is the predicate in its 
simple form. By adding " swiftly," it is denoted how or in what manner the 
swallow flies. By adding " through the air," the place where the swallow 
flies is indicated. 

" The news came yesterday." " Yesterday " modifies " came," by denoting 
the time when the news came. 

" Swiftly " and " yesterday " are called adverbs, and " through the air " is an 
adjunct of "flies." 

/. The Predicate modified by an Object. 

131. When the Predicate is a transitive verb, it is modified 
by an object expressed or understood. 

Examples. — " Bees produce honey." " Honey " is the object of the verb 
"produce," and limits its meaning by denoting what is produced. 

"Worms destroy plants." The predicate "destroy" is modified by 
"plants." 

" Destroy " and " produce " are transitive verbs, because they do not com 
plete an affirmation without the addition of an object. Produce (what?) 
honey. Destroy (what?) plants. 

EXERCISE. 

Complete the predicate by adding an object. 

Sickness causes — God created — 

The king conquered — The tree yields — 

The wolf followed — Hunters pursue — 

Perseverance overcomes — Bees collect — 

The gentleman has — Knowledge enlarges — 

Worms destroy— Snow covers — 



§ VIII.] MODIFIED PREDICATE. 47 

ANALYSIS AND PARSING. 

Rule IX. 

132. The object of a transitive verb must be in the ob- 
jective case. 

133. The form of the objective case of nouns is the same as 
that of the nominative. 

134. The objective case of pronouns is as follows : 

SINGULAR. PLURAL. 

Nominative. I Thou He She It We Ye or you They 

Objective. me thee him her it us you them 

Model 
Sentence. — Atonzo, a youth of great promise, found an early grave. 

Analyzed. "Alonzo" is the subject, modified by the noun "youth" in 
apposition with it. " Youth " is modified by the definitive adjective " a," 
and by the adjunct " of great promise." " Promise " is modified by the ad- 
jective " great." 

" Alonzo, a youth of great promise," is the modified subject. " Found " 
is the predicate limited by the object " grave." " Grave " is described by the 
adjectives " an " and " early." 

" Found an early grave," is the modified predicate. 

The Object parsed. " Grave " is a common noun, third person, singular, 
neuter, and in the objective case. It is the object of the transitive verb " found." 

SENTENCES. 

The sharp point of a diamond cuts glass. The prisoner in 
chains made his escape. The prince obeys the king's com- 
mand. The youth's extraordinary diligence deserves praise. 
The rays of the sun disperse darkness. Obey the laws. Govern 
your passions. They bound him. They tortured him. A 
guilty conscience tormented him. Fear God. Forgive your 
enemies. Seek peace. See Model IV, Section I. 

COMPOSITION. 

Sentences to be written, each including one of the following words, in the 
.objective case, after a transitive verb. 

Model 
America. Go.a. Air. 

Columbus discovered America. Misers howd gold. Rain cools the air. 



48 ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX. [§ IX. 

EXERCISE. 

Steam. Ship. Freight, Sails. Carriage. Horses. Grass. 
Hay. Money. Time. Books. House. Trees. Grain. 
Food. 

Section IX. 

II. The Predicate modified hy Adverbs. 

135. The predicate may be modified by words which denote 
how, hoiv much, how often, when, where } &c. Such words are 
called adverbs. 

Examples. — "He studies diligently." "Diligently" modifies the predi- 
cate, by denoting how he studies. 

" I admire him exceedingly." " Exceedingly " modifies the predicate " ad- 
mire." It denotes how much I admire. 

"The boat arrived yesterday." "Yesterday" modifies "arrived," in re- 
spect to time. 

ADVEBBS. 

136. An adverb is a word joined to a verb, adjective, or 
to another adverb, to modify its meaning. 

137. Some adverbs are joined to verbs to denote manner ; 
as, "The youth studies diligently" "Diligently" denotes in 
what manner, or how the youth studies. 

EXERCISE. 

Write two adverbs after each of the following verbs, to denote manner, 

Model. 
The water flows — 
The water flows smoothly. 
The water flows rapidly. 
The pupil writes — The fire burns — The child talks — 
The sun shines — The lion roars — The bird sings — 
How are the verbs which you have written modified ? 
2. Place a noun and a verb before each of the following adverbs : 

— proudly. — ill. — well. — foolishly. 

— correctly. — cruelly. — unwisely. — justly. 

138. Some adverbs denote time; as, "Sow I will go." Now 
is an adverb. 



Six.] 



ADVERBS. 



EXERCISE. 

Point out the adverbs of time, and the verbs which they modify. 
The boat arrived yesterday. He is coming soon. 
When did his brother arrive? I never saw him. 
I heard the news before. He formerly lived in Boston. 

139. Some adverbs denote place ; as, "I am here;" "you 
are there ; " that is, in this place, in that place, 

140. Some adverbs denote assent, denial, doubt ; as, Yes, no, 
not, undoubtedly, truly, perhaps, probably, possibly. 

141. Some adverbs denote comparison, quantity ; as, More, 
most, very, much, enough. 

142. Most adverbs answer to the questions, how? when? or 
how often? as, The prattler talks — how? Axis. Foolishly. The 
boat arrived — when ? Ans. To-day. You come to town — how 
often? Ans. Frequently. 

143. Adverbs are often joined to adjectives, to modify their 
meaning ; as, More pleasing ; most fanciful ; very true. 

144. Adverbs sometimes modify the meaning of other ad- 
verbs ; as, Very soon ; most assuredly. 

145. Adverbs rarely modify prepositions ; as, Almost to ; di- 
rectly under. 

COMPOSITION. 

Sentences to be written : each of which may include one of the following 
Rd verbs : 

Diligently. Rapidly. Assuredly. Pleasantly. 

Undoubtedly. Possibly. Probably. Cheerfully. 

Truly. To-day, To-morrow, Often. 

Yes. Not. More. Most, 



ANALYSIS AND PARSING, 

Rule X. 
146. Adverbs generally modify verbs, adjectives, or other 

adverbs. 

Model. 
Sentence. — Time files swiftly. 
Analyzed. " Time " is the subject. " Flies " is the predicate, modified by 
u swiftly." " Flies swiftly," is the modified predicate. 



50 ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX. [§ X. 

Adverb Parsed. " Swiftly," is an adverb and modifies " flies.' ' Rule. 

SENTENCES. 

A generous man bestows his favors seasonably. 

The old ship Constitution arrived yesterday. 

A large army encamped here. 

Each member performed his part cheerfully. 

Where is my friend ? ( My friend is where ? ) 

Quite small children sometimes read very well. 

Study diligently. Labor patiently. How often is he absent ? 

REVIEW. 

What is the first modifier of the predicate ? (131) In what case is the ob- 
ject of a transitive verb ? What is the form of the objective case of nouns ? 
Uf pronouns ? What is the second modifier of the predicate ? (135) What is 
an adverb ? Mention what some of the different classes of adverbs denote. 
Repeat Rule IX, (132) and Rule X, (146). 



Section X. 

III. The Predicate modified by Adjuncts. 

147. The Predicate may be modified hj an adjunct denoting 
time, place, quantity, cause, manner, means, instrument, or ac- 
companiment 

Note. — The adjunct of the predicate should receive very careful atten- 
tion. By means of this we may give almost endless variety in the expression 
of thoughts. This adjunct consists of a preposition and its object, and may be 
used frequently in place of an adverb. 

Examples. " I work at home, in the field, in the morning, on a farm, icith 
diligence, with a friend" tfc. Either of the adjuncts may modify the predicate 
"work," to denote time, place, &c. 

"The snow falls, (where?) on the ground, (when?) in the winter, (how 
much ?) in great abundance." 

" He lives, (where ?) in London, (how ?) in poverty." 

"The ship sailed (whence?) from Boston, (to what place ?) to Liverpool." 

EXERCISE. 
Supply an adjunct to modify each of the following predicates. 
He lived — The fruit lies — 

They cast him — ■* The eagle hovered — 

He fell — The stone rolled — 

They walked -— Rivers flow — 



§ X.] ADVERBS. 51 

They sailed — Birds build their nests — 
His brethren cast Joseph — The prodigal wasted his sub- 
Joseph ruled — stance — 
The rain descends — Bees collect honey — 
The rain fell — 

ANALYSIS AND PARSING. 

In analyzing the following sentences particular attention should be given to 
the adjuncts of the predicate. 

Peter wept bitterly for his sin. 

He recited the lesson imperfectly in the morning. 

They divided the inheritance among them. 

Rivers flow into the ocean. 

The sailors abstained from intoxicating drinks. 

They made preparations for the funeral. 

They bore the body to the church on the Sabbath following. 

The sun gives light by day. 

The ships sail over the boisterous deep. 

IV. The Predicate modified hy Clauses. 

148. The predicate may be modified by clauses which ex- 
press time, place, cause, fyc. 

Example's. — "I fled when I saw the enemy:'' The predicate "fled" is 
modified, by the clause " when," &c, which denotes both the time and cause 
of fleeing. 

" I fled because I was afraid:'' The predicate " fled" is modified by the 
clause " because," &c, which denotes the cause. 

" He dwells where his father dwelt." The predicate " dwells " is modified 
by the clause " where," &c, which denotes the place of dwelling. 

EXERCISES. 
Show how the predicates are modified in the following sentences. 
The building shakes when the wind blows. 
We were present when General Lafayette embarked at 
Havre for New Yor.k. 

You sleep while I write. You are idle while I labor. 
They persevered as long as there was a prospect of success. 
I saw him as soon as he arrived. 
He finished his work before he departed. 



52 ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX. [§ XI, 



REVIEW. 

How is the predicate modified in the third place ? (147) Give an example 
of a predicate modified by an adjunct ? How is the predicate modified in the 
fourth place ? (148) In how many different ways may a predicate be modi 
fied ? In how many different ways may a subject be modified ? What are 
these ways ? 



Section XI. 

GENERAL EXERCISE IN ANALYSIS AND PARSING. 

Note 1. The models already given will be a sufficient guide in the following 
exercise. 

2. In analyzing, the learner will first look for the subject, and then for the 
words or adjuncts which modify it. Then he will point out the predicate and 
its modifications. In the foregoing pages he will find a model for parsing any 
part of speech occurring in the sentences that follow. 

SENTENCES. 

Good breeding consists in a respectful behavior to all. 

The early natives of the country fell into the hands of the 
Romans. 

The patient ox submits quietly to the yoke. 

The angry waves dash violently against the rocks. 

The affecting story of the crucifixion often melts hard hearts 
into penitence. 

The memory of Washington is fresh in the hearts of his 
countrymen. 

The sun sank in the western horizon, in clouds of foreboding 
darkness. 

I heard the crashing of the pointed rocks through the bottom 
of the ship. 

COMPOSITION. 

Supply modified predicates for the following modified subjects. 

Model 
Modified subject. Modified predicate. 

Many enemies of public liberty — 
Many enemies of public liberty, have been distinguished by their private virtues. 

A contented mind — . Idleness in the season of youth-. 

Industrious habits — , Great advantage — . 



§XII.] MODIFICATION OF WORDS. 53 

The trees of the forest — . The duties of children at school -. 

The flowers of the field — .- The darkness of the night — . 

Children who are obedient to their parents — . 

The world which we live upon — . 

Note. — Some other modifications of the predicate will be explained in 
Parts III, and IV. 

Section XII. 
MODIFICATION OF WORDS. 

149. The meaning of any noun or pronoun, may be modified 
in the same manner as the subject. 

1. By an adjective ; as, " A good farm." 

2. By a noun or pronoun in apposition ; as, " Cicero, the 
orator." 

3. By a noun or pronoun in the possessive case ; as, " Cow- 
per's poems." 

4. By an adjunct ; as, " The prayer of faith." 

5. By a clause ; as, " I abhor the man ivho deceives." 

150. The meaning of a verb, in any form, may be modified 
in the same manner as the predicate. 

1. If transitive, by an object; as, "I love to see the sun" 

2. By an adverb ; as, " He strives to live contentedly" 

3. By an adjunct ; as, " He is ambitious to excel in learning" 

4. By a clause, denoting time, place, cause, &c. 

151. An adjective is often modified, 

1. By an adverb ; as, " He is quite industrious." 

2. By an adjunct ; as, "He is capable of understanding " 

152. An adverb may be modified, 

1. By another adverb ; as, " He conducted quite improperly." 

2. By an adjunct ; as, " Agreeably to your wishes." 

ANALYSIS AND PARSING-. 

The doctrines of the gospel are practical principles. 
The immense quantity of matter in the universe, presents a 
most striking display of Almighty power. 

5* 



54 ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX. [§ XIII, 

The rapid motions of the great bodies of the universe, dis- 
play the infinite power of the Creator. 

I mentioned the unexpected meeting with my friend, in a 
distant spot. \In connects spot and meeting.] 

He directed my eye with his finger over another landscape. 

Medical science first struck its root in Grecian soil. 

Homer is the fountain-head of European poetry. 

Confusion in speech leads to confusion in morals. 

COMPOSITION. 

Exercise in forming Sentences. 

Model 

Subject. Predicate. 

Washington — — commanded. 

Washington commanded. (The simplest, that is, the unmodi- 
fied form.) 

Modified subject. Modified predicate. 

The illustrious Washington bravely commanded. 

The illustrious Washington bravely commanded. 

The illustrious Washington, ( bravely commanded the American 

the son of a Virginian planter, ( army in the revolutionary war. 

Note. — It will be seen that a simple sentence consists of two parts, viz : 
a subject and & predicate, or a modified subject and a modified predicate. 

Sentences may now be formed after the model above. 

Subjects. Predicates. 

Columbus discovered. 

Trees grow. 

Ship sails. 

Fire consumes. 

Section XIII. 
CONJUNCTIONS. 

153. A Conjunction is a part of speech used to connect 
words, adjuncts, or clauses. 

Examples. — " Charles and James are brothers." "And," the conjunction, 
connects " Charles " and " James ; " that is, it denotes that they are spoken of 
together. 



§ XIV.] CONJUNCTIONS. 65 

"I walked in the fields and in the groves" The adjuncts " in the fields " 
and "in the groves," are connected by and. 

U I love him because he is good." The clauses" I love him," and "he is 
good," are connected by the conjunction because. 

154. The following is a list of the principal conjunctions : 

And, although, as, Or, 

Because, both, but t Since, same, 

Either, Than, that, therefore, though, 

For, Unless, 

If, Wherefore, whether, 

Lest, Yet. 

Neither, nor, notwithstanding, 

Note. — Several of the words in the list above, are used in other offices as 
well as that of a connective. See Syntax, under Rule XXIV. 

EXERCISE. 

Supply conjunctions to connect the words or sentences separated by the blank 

spaces. 

He reads — writes. He neither reads — studies. 

I neither command — forbid. He is despised — he is poor. 

He is either a knave — a dunce. I ask — you believe it to be true. 

* The wind subsides — the clouds disperse. 

COMPOSITION. 

Write sentences, each of which shall include one of the following conjunctions. 
Note.— Nor must be used after neither; or after either. 

And, Whether, Than, Unless, 

Because, Neither, Or, Either, 

If, Though, But, That 



Section XIV. 

COMPOUND SUBJECT. 

155. The Compound Subject consists of two or more simple 
subjects connected in one proposition. 

Examples. — " Pompey and Ccesar were Roman generals." " Pompey and 
Caesar " is the compound subject. This proposition may be resolved into two 



36 ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX. [§ XIV 

distinct propositions ; as, " Caesar was a Koman general, and Pompey was a 
Roman general.'' In the former case, the conjunction and connects the nouns 
Pomjpey and Caesar; in the latter, it connects the two propositions. 

" James or Charles is in fault." "James or Charles " is the compound sub- 
ject. This sentence may also be resolved as follows : " James is in fault, or 
Charles is in fault." 

156. A proposition containing a compound subject may be resolved into as 
many propositions as there are simple subjects. This is not true, however, 
when the predicate is not applicable to the subjects taken separately; as, 
" Two and three make five." This sentence cannot be resolved like the ex- 
amples above. In propositions of this kind, the subject may be regarded as 
simple, although in form it is compound. 

157. When three or more subjects stand connected, the con- 
junction is frequently omitted except before the last ; as, " James, 
Charles and John are brothers." 

ANALYSIS AND PARSING. 

In this Exercise, the learner may analyze the sentence having a compound 
subject as a whole, and then resolve it into as many separate propositions as 
there are simple subjects. 

The moon and stars are shining. 

The rain and snow fell in great abundance last season , 

The Scribes and Pharisees came to Jesus. 

Moses and Aaron spake to the children of Israel. 

Moses, Aaron, and Hur went up to the top of the hill. 

Spring, summer, or autumn, is preferable to winter. 



COMPOUND PEEDICATE. 

158. The Compound Predicate contains two or more simple 
predicates that are applicable to one subject. 

Example. — " He writes and studies.'''' " Writes and studies " is the com- 
pound predicate. The sentence may be resolved into two simple propositions, 
by repeating the subject; as, "He writes," and "he studies." In the former 
case, the conjunction connects the verbs writes and studies ; in the latter, it 
connects the two propositions. 

159. Sentences having a compound predicate may be resolved into as 
many propositions as there are simple predicate!. 



§ XIV.] INTERJECTIONS. 57 

160. When three or more predicates stand connected, the 
conjunction is often omitted, except before the last ; as, "James 
reads, writes and ciphers." 

ANALYSIS AND PARSING. 

Let the sentence be analyzed as a whole, and then be resolved into separate 
propositions. 

The husbandman ploughs, sows, reaps, and gathers into his 
storehouse. 

Peaches are agreeable to the taste, delight the smell, and 
charm the sight. 

Ducks swim in the water, fly in the air, or walk on the land. 

Hear counsel, and receive instruction. 

Forsake the foolish, and live ; and go in the way of under- 
standing. 

INTERJECTIONS. 

161. An Interjection is a word used in giving utterance to 
some sudden or strong emotion ; as, Of Alas! 

The following are the principal interjections: O! oh! ah! 
alas ! ho ! halloo ! hurrah ! huzza ! pish ! poh ! tush ! fie ! lo ! 

162. Certain verbs are often used as interjections; as, Be- 
hold ! look ! hark ! hail ! welcome ! 

Note. — Some other parts of speech are occasionally used in exclamation* 
of wonder or surprise ; as, Strange ! what ! mercy, &c. 



58 ETYMOLOGY. [§ XV. 

PART III. 

CLASSES, VARIATIONS, AND INFLECTIONS. 
Section XV. 

CLASSIFICATION OF NOUNS. 

163. A single name is often applicable to a great number of 
objects ; as, Animal, plant, river, stone, mountain, 

164. The name animal is applicable to every living being. The name man 
is applicable to each of a certain class of living beings. So likewise each of 
the names, bird,jish, reptile, quadruped, is applicable to a whole class of beings 
and to every individual of a class. The names robin, thrush, lark, eagle, and 
raven, denote distinct classes of birds, and each of them is the common term 
applicable to every individual of its own class. 

165. Sometimes a particular name is given to an individual 
of a certain class, to distinguish it from the rest ; as, Adam, 
Homer, Bucephalus, Amazon, Andes. 

166. Nouns are divided into two general classes ; Com- 
mon and Proper. See 69, 70. 

167. Common nouns are divided into collective, abstract, participial or ver- 
bal, compound, and complex. 

168. A collective noun is the name of a body or collection of individuals ; 
as, People, flock, council, assembly. 

169. An abstract noun is the name of some quality ; as, Cheerfulness, vamr 
ity, goodness, frailty. 

170. A participial or verbal noun is the name of some action, or state of 
being ; as, " The cheering of the multitude." " The singing of birds." 

Note. — Such nouns are called verbal, because they are derived from 
verbs ; participial, from having the form of the participle. 

171. A compound noun is a name composed of two or more words, which 
are generally separated by a hyphen ; as, RaiWoad, ivill-with-the-urisp, 

172. A complex noun is a name with some distinguishing or complimentary 
title added to it ; as, Mr. James White , Judge Wild , Dr. E. Smith. 

173. A common noun often becomes proper when it denotes an inanimate 
object or an abstract quality personified ; as, " Time! how few thy value 
weigh." 

174. A common noun becomes proper when, with the article the, it distin- 
guishes some particular place, object or event, as remarkable above others of 



§XV.] CLASSES, — COMMON AND PROPER NOUNS. 59 

the same name ; as, The Bar, the Park, the Common, Hie Tempest, the Dark 
Day, the Deluge. 

175. A proper noun becomes common, when applied to a class of individ- 
uals, to designate in them some character or quality of the person or object to 
which the name was originally given ; as, " He is the Cicero of his age." " He 
will never become a Washington" 

176. Proper names generally become common when they comprehend two 
or more individuals ; as, The Smiths , Two Roberts. But this is not the case 
with names that designate a whole people ; as, The Amencans , the Russians , 
the Indians. But when such nouns are applicable to individuals, or to any 
part of the people thus designated, they become common ; as, Americans , 
Russians , Indians. 

ANALYSIS AND PARSING. 

Particular attention should be given to the different classes of nouns that 
have been before described. If the learner meets with difficulty in analyzing 
and parsing, he can turn back for assistance to the Models in Part I. 

SENTENCES. 

Columbus, a native of Genoa, discovered America. 
Cambyses, the son of Cyrus, led an army against Amasis. 
The Thebans commenced hostilities with the Athenians. 
The thoughts of the diligent tend only to plenteousness. 
Slothfulness casteth into a deep sleep. 
Genius and learning walk in the train of virtue. 
In reason and in fact character goes before scholarship. 
Professing regard and acting indifferently discover a base 
mind. 

ORAL EXERCISE. 

Questions like these contained in the oral exercises should be multiplied 
until the learner is perfectly familiar with the subject under examination. 

Are there as many names in the English language as objects which can be 
described ? Give some examples of names, each of which is applicable to a 
number of objects. 

Which name is applicable to the largest number of objects, animal or man ? 
Animal or bird ? Bird or robin ? Bird or lark ? Reptile or worm ? Tree 
or maple ? Plant or tree ? 

Mention the names of as many animals as you can recollect. Is each of 
the names given applicable to more than one animal ? 

What kind of nouns are those which you have mentioned ? Why so called ? 
Define a common noun. 

Which noun is the more general or common, mountain or Alps ? river or 
Amazon ? man or Washington ? boy or Charles ? Why ? 



80 ETYMOLOGY. [§ XVI. 

What kind of nouns are those which designate individuals of a class ? 
Why? 

What is an abstract noun ? A collective noun ? A participial noun ? A 
compound noun ? 

Section XVI. 

PH0PERTIES OF NOUNS AND PRONOUNS. 

177. It is the nature of a noun to represent to the mind an object, together 
with some quality or relation pertaining to it. For example, the noun " man," 
denotes a being, together with the sex. The noun "houses," represents an 
object together with the idea of plurality. 

178. This quality or attribute of representing number, sex, and certain re- 
lations, is called a property of the noun. 

179. The properties of nouns and pronouns are person, 
number ', gender, and case. 

PERSON. 

180. Person is the property that indicates the relation of 
a noun or pronoun to the speaker. 

181. There are three persons, called first, second, and third. 

1. The speaker, or first person, may speak of himself ; or, 2, he may speak 
of the person whom he addresses, called the second person ; or, 3, he may 
speak of some other person. 

182. As each person may include one or more, it maybe singular or plural. 
See declension of nouns and pronouns, 225. See also, 72, 73, 74, 75, 76. 

NUMBER. 

183. Number is the property that distinguishes one from 
more than one. See 77. 

184. There are two numbers, singular and plural. 

Forms of the Plural Number. 

185. The plural of nouns is generally formed by adding s to 
the singular ; as, Road, roads ; mountain, mountains. 

186. The plural ending often makes an additional syllable. This is the 
case when the s does not unite in sound with the word or syllable to which it 
is added ; thus, the plurals of hwse, house, page, rose, voice, have two syllables ; 
as, horses, houses, &c. 



§ XVI.] 



NUMBER, — PLURAL FORMS. 



61 



187. Nouns ending in x, z, ss, sh, or ch soft, form their plu- 
rals by adding es ; as, Fox, foxes, glass, glasses, adz, adzes, lash, 
lashes, church, churches. 

Note. — The insertion of the e is necessary in such words to give the sound 
of s in the plural form. 

188. Most nouns ending infovfe, form their plural in ves; as, Wife, wives, 
loaf, loaves. 

189. The following nouns and their compounds form their plurals regu- 
larly ; strife, Jife, safe, brief chief grief kerchief mischief dwarf scarf turf 
surf gulf roof proof hoof and such as end in ff, except staff, which has 
staves. Staff as a military term has staffs in the plural. 

190. Nouns ending in y after a consonant, change the y into ies, to form the 
Dlural ; as, Body, bodies ; lady, ladies. But nouns ending in y after a vowel, 
have their plural regular ; as, Valley, valleys ; boy, boys; day, days.* 

191. Nouns ending in o, preceded by a consonant, form their plural by 
adding cs to the singular ; as, Hero, heroes ; except junto, canto, tyro, grotto, 
portico, solo, and quarto, which have s only, added for the plural. 

192. Nouns ending in a vowel preceded by another vowel, form their plu- 
rals regularly ; as, Folio, folios. 

193. The plural of the following noun3 is irregularly formed : 



Singular. 

Man 
Child 
Woman 
Ox 



Plural. 

men 
children 
women 
oxen 



Singular. 

Tooth 
Louse 
Goose 
Mouse 



Plural. 

teeth 
lice 
geese 
mice. 



Plural. 
brethren (of one society.) 
dice for gaming, 
pence ) applied to 
pease ) a mass. 



194. The following nouns have two forms in the plural, with different sig- 
nifications. 

Singular. Plural. 

Brother brothers (of one family) 

Die dies (for coining) 

Penny pennies ) distinct 

Pea peas ) objects. 

Cow cows kine 

Genius geniuses, persons of genius, genii, a kind of asrial spirits. 

195. The compounds of man form the plural in the same manner as the sim- 
ple word ; as, Alderman, aldermen ; statesman, statesmen. 

196. Some words ending in man, as Turcoman, talisman, are not compounds 
of this word, and form their plural regularly. 

* Formerly, the singular number of this class of words ended in ie ; as 
Glorie, vanitie. 

6 



62 



ETYMOLOGY. 



[§ XVL 



The Plural of Foreign Words. 

197. Nouns whose plurals are formed according to the analogy of the Ian 
guages from which they are derived. 



Singular. 

Alumnus, 

Amanuensis, 

Analysis, 

Animalculum, 

Antithesis, 

Apex, 
Appendix, 

Automaton, 

Axis, 
Arcanum, 

Bandit, 

Basis, 
Beau, 

Calix, 

Cherub, 

Chrvsalis, 
Datum, 
Desideratum, 
Diaeresis, 

Dogma, 

Effluvium, 

Ellipsis, 

Emphasis, 

Ephemeris, 

Encomium, 

Erratum, 
Focus, 

Formula, 

Fungus, 
Genus, 



Plural 

alumni. 

amanuenses. 

analyses. 

animalcula. 

antitheses. 
[ apices, 
[ apexes. 
j appendices, 
[ appendixes. 

i automata, 
automatons, 
axes, 
arcana. 
[ banditti, 
j bandits. 



Singular. 



Plural. 



beaux. 

{calices, 
calixes. 
i cherubim, 
cherubs, 
chrysalides. 
data. 

desiderata, 
diaereses. 

f dogmas, 
dogmata, 
effluvia, 
ellipses, 
emphases, 
ephemerides. 

{encomiums, 
encomia, 
errata, 
foci. 

{formulas, 
formulae. 
( fungi, 
{ funguses, 
genera. 



Gymnasium, {Stasia, 

I gymnasiums. 
Hypothesis, 
Ignis fatuus, 
Index, 



hypotheses, 
ignes fatui. 
indexes, (pointers 
or tables of 
contents.) 
Index, indices, (referring 

to algebraic 
quantities.) 
laminae, 
lavae. 
j media, 
( mediums. 
i memoranda, 



Lamina, 
Lava, 

Medium, 

Memorandum,. 

( memorandums. 

Metamorphosis, metamorphoses. 



Momentum, 

Monsieur, 
Miasma, 

Nebula, 

Oasis, 

Parenthesis, 

Phasis, 

Phenomenon, 

Radius, 

Scoria, 

Scholium, 

Stamen, 

Stratum, 
Stimulus, 

Seraph, 

Speculum, 

Thesis, 

Vortex, 



momenta, 

momentums. 

messieures. 

miasmata. 

nebulae. 

oases. 

parentheses. 

phases. 

phenomena. 

radii. 

scoriae. 
C scholia, 
( scholiums. 
( stamens, 
( stamina. 

strata. 

stimuli. 

{seraphim, 
seraph, 
specula, 
theses, 
vortices. 



8 xvl] 



NUMBER — PLURAL FORMS. 



63 



198. Some nouns, from the nature of the things which they denote, have the 
singular form only ; as, Wheat, pitch, gold, sloth, &c. Some words of this 
class, when used to denote different kinds of the substances or qualities which 
they represent, admit of a plural form ; as, Wine, wines ; vice, vices. 

199. Some nouns have the same form in both numbers ; as, Mathematics^ 
ethics, means, species, series, deer, sheep. 

The singular mean is used to signify the middle between two extremes. 

200. News, which was formerly used both in the singular and plural, is 
now regarded as singular only. 

201. The words cannon, shot, sail; also the words horse, foot, infantry, and 
cavalry, comprehending bodies of soldiers, are used as plural nouns ; as, 
"Several shot being fired;" "several sail of ships." The word fish has a 
plural, but is used in the plural sense without a change of form. 

202. To express the plural of a proper noun with a title prefixed, the title 
only is usually varied in writing, to express the plural ; as, " The Messrs Har- 



per : 



' the Misses Young." But in regard to the plural of such complex 



nouns, usage is not uniform. Some good writers vary the name and not the 
title, and in conversation this usage is more common ; as, " The Miss Youngs." 
With the title of Mrs., or the numerals two or three prefixed, the name only 
is varied to express the plural. 

203. Compounds, in which the principal word is put first, vary the princi- 
pal word to form their plurals; as, Father-m-l&w ; plural, Fathers-in-law. 
CWrtf-martial ; plural, Gwrte-martial. Compounds ending mful, and all those 
in which the principal word is put last, have the regular plural form ; as, 
Spoonfuls, man-traps. 

204. Proper names, generally, do not admit of a plural form, except the 
names of nations, societies, chains of mountains, and groups of islands ; as, The 
Apennines, the Friends, the English, the West- Indies. 

205. The following nouns are used only in the plural. 



Drawers, (an article of Lees. 



Snuffers. 



Annals. 

Antipodes. 

Archives. 

Ashes. 

Assets. 

Billiards. 

Bitters. 

Bowels. 

Breeches. 

Clothes. 

Calends. 

Add to these the names of things consisting of two parts only ; as, Bellows, 
scissors, tongs, &c. 

Note. — Words, figures, and letters, used merely as nouns, without regard 
to their appropriate signification, form their plural with an apostrophe and the 
letter s; as, the ifs and anoVs ; the hut's and wherefore's; the &'s and the 9'«; 
the a J s and the frs. 



dress.) 


Lungs. 


Scissors. 


Dregs. 


Letters, (literature.) Shears. 


Embers. 


Measles. 


Shambles. 


Entrails. 


Minutiae. 


Tidings. 


Goods. 


Manners. 


Tongs. 


Hatches. 


Morals. 


Thanks. 


Hose, (stockings.) 


Nippers. 


Vespers. 


Hysterics. 


Nones. 


Vitals. 


Ides. 


Pincers. 


Victuals. 


Literati. 


Pleiads. 


Wages. 



64 



ETYMOLOGY. 



[§XVII. 



EXERCISE. 

Give the plurals of the following nouns. 

Tax ; brush ; gas ; monkey ; attorney ; valley ; fly ; lady \ 
destiny ; liberty ; city ; berry ; prodigy ; hero ; negro ; portico ; 
motto; potato ; tyro ; elf; wolf; leaf; half; thief; life ; knife ; 
staff; flagstaff; brother; foot; emphasis; handful; spoonful; 
penny ; genus ; index ; mother-in-law ; brother-in-law ; genius ; 
alderman ; statesman. 



Section XYII. 
GENDER. 

206. Gender is a property of the noun or pronoun to dis- 
tinguish sex. See 80, 81, 82, 83. 

There are three different ways of distinguishing sex, — 1. by 
the use of different words ; as, Father, mother; 2. by difference 
of termination ; as, Actor, actress; 3. by prefixing or annexing 
another word ; as, LandforcZ, landlady. 

207. By different words. 



Masculine. 


Feminine. 


Masculine. Feminine. 


Masculine. 


Feminine, 


Beau, 


belle. 


Gentleman, lady. 


Man, 


woman. 


B07, 


girl. 


Hart, 


roe. 


Master, 


mistress. 


Brother, 


sister. 


Horse, 


mare. 


Master, 


miss. 


Buck, 


doe. 


Husband, 


wife. 


Nephew, 


niece. 


Drake, 


duck. 


King, 


queen. 


Papa, 


mamma. 


Earl, 


countess. 


Lad, 


lass. 


Son, 


daughter. 


Father, 


mother. 


Landlord 


, landlady. 


Stag, 


hind. 


Friar or monk, 


nun. 


Lord, 


lady. 


Uncle, 


aunt. 


Gander, 


goose. 


Male, 


female. 


Wizard, 


witch. 


208. By 


difference of termination. 






Masculine. 


Feminine. 




Masculine. 


Feminine 




Abbot, 


abbess. 




Instructor, 


instructress. 


Actor, 


actress. 




Jew, 


Jewess. 




Administrator, 


administratrix. 


Landgrave, 


landgravine. 


Adulterer, 


adulteress 




Lion, 


lioness. 




Ambassador, 


ambassadress. 


Marquis, 


marchioness. 


.Arbiter, 


arbitress. 




Margrave, 


margravine. 


Author, 


authoress. 




Negro, 


negress. 





| XVII.] 




GENDER. 


65 


Masculine. 


Feminine, 


Masculine. 


Feminine, 


Baron, 


baroness. 


Patron, 


patroness. 


Bridegroom, 


bride. 


Peer, 


peeress. 


Benefactor, 


benefactress. 


Poet, 


poetess. 


Caterer, 


cateress. 


Prior, 


prioress. 


Chanter, 


• chantress. 


Prophet, 


prophetess. 


Conductor, 


conductress. 


Protector, 


protectress. 


Count, 


countess. 


Priest, 


priestess. 


Czar, 


czarina. 


Prince, 


princess. 


Dauphin, 


dauphiness. 


Shepherd, 


shepherdess. 


Deacon, 


deaconess. 


Songster, 


songstress. 


Duke, 


duchess. 


Sorcerer, 


sorceress. 


Emperor, 


empress. 


Sultan, 


sultaness or sultana 


Enchanter, 


enchantress. 


Tailor, 


tailoress. 


Executor, 


executrix. 


Testator, 


testatrix. 


Governor, 


governess. 


Tiger, 


tigress. 


Heir, 


heiress. 


Tutor, 


tutoress. 


Hero, 


heroine. 


Viscount, 


viscountess. 


Host, 


hostess. 


Votary, 


votaress. 


Hunter, 


huntress. 


Widower, 


widow. 



209. By prefixing or annexing another word ; as, 

Landlord, landlady. Man-servant, maid-servant. 



Gentleman, 

Peacock, 

jBe-goat, 



gentlewoman. 

peahen. 

she-goat. 



Cbc^-sp arrow, 
Male child, 



hen-srj arrow. 
female child. 



210. Some nouns denote objects which are either male or female; as, 
Child, parent, neighbor. Such nouns, when used in a general way, without 
particular reference to some individual of the class,* are said to be of the 

COMMON GEKDER. 

211. Things without life are sometimes figuratively represented as having 
the attributes of living beings ; to such the distinction of sex is applied ; as, 
when we say of a ship, slie sails well, or of the sun, he is rising. Things re- 
markable for power, size, &c, are spoken of as masculine. Things beautiful, 
amiable, or productive, as feminine. 

212. When we speak in a general manner of a species; as, the dog, the 
cat, &c, to the species which is remarkable for boldness, strength, or gener- 
osity, the male sex is generally attributed ; to animals of opposite qualities 
the female sex is attributed ; as, " The dog is remarkable for his sagacity." 
" The cat, as she beholds the light, contracts the pupil of her eye." 

213. The masculine gender has a general meaning, expressing both male 
and female, and is always employed when the office, occupation, or profession, 

* The term common does not refer to any distinction in sex, but is applied 
to a certain class of nouns, which, from their form, are indeterminate in re- 
spect to gender ; but when the context determines to which sex they are to be 
referred, they are not to be considered of the common gender. 



66 ETYMOLOGY. [§ XVIIL 

and not the sex, of the individual is chiefly to be expressed. In the following 
sentence, both male and female writers are included. " The poets of this age ■ 
are distinguished more by correctness of taste than sublimity of conception." 
But if it is intended to designate the sex of the individual spoken of, the ap- 
propriate form of the word must be used.^ 

214. In speaking of an animal, whose sex is not known or not important 
to be regarded, it is often considered without sex; as, "If a man .steal an ox 
or sheep and sell it" &c 

ORAL EXERCISE. 

How many does the word river denote ? Change the form so that it shall 
denote more than one. Change the following nouns to the plural form ; knife, 
strife, wife, chief fox, glass, brush, vanity, money, child, emphasis, analysis, 
memorandum, gymnasium. 

What is that property of a noun called, which distinguishes one from more 
than one ? 

How is the plural number formed ? What are some of the variations from 
the general rule ? 

What is gender? What does the masculine gender denote? feminine? 
neuter ? Mention the different ways of distinguishing sex. To what object 
is the term common gender applicable ? Is the distinction of sex ever applied 
to things without life ? 



Section XVIII. 

CASE. 

215. The term Case (Latin, casus, "a fall," "an end," or "a close,") is 
strictly applicable to the ending of declinable words. But in the English 
language the relations of words are not generally determined by syllables 
annexed or prefixed. 

216. In every sentence there is one word which denotes the person or 
thing of which an assertion is made, called the subject. This relation is easily 
determined, and is called the nominative case. The predicate expresses somfl 
action or state of the subject. This action sometimes relates only to the sub- 
ject itself; as, "The bird sings," "a man sleeps" and sometimes extends 
beyond itself to some object which is controlled, produced, possessed, or in 
some way affected by it. This object is denoted by a noun or pronoun, in 
quite a different relation from that of the nominative, and is said to be in the 
objective case, 

217. The objective case may be easily known, from its being the direct 
limitation of a transitive verb or preposition. As the relation of property or 
ownership is indicated by a certain termination of the noun, the case, called 

* See Crornbie's Etymology and Syntax. Also, Cramp's Philosophy of 



§ XVIII.] CASE. 67 

the possessive, occasions no difficulty to the learner. There are, therefore, 
three distinct relations of nouns and pronouns in a sentence, called, in gram- 
mar, nominative, possessive, and objective cases. See 84. 

218. The nominative case is used to denote the following 
relations. See 85, 86, 87. 

1. Of the subject of a proposition; as, " Tlie sun is the source of heat." 

2. Of a noun, pronoun, or clause, in apposition with the subject; as, 
"Cicero, the oratoi*;" "the question, how he should succeed, was not con- 
sidered." 

3. Of a noun in the predicate referring to the subject nominative; as, 
" Cicero, the orator, was a great statesman.''' Cicero, orator, and statesman, 
are in the nominative case. 

219. The possessive case of nouns is generally formed by 
annexing s with an apostrophe; as, "Swift's journal;" "Spen- 
cer's anecdotes ; " " men's shoes ;" " children's toys." 

220. The possessive case plural, ending in s, is formed by 
adding the apostrophe without the s ; as, "Boys' tops;" "eagles' 
wings." 

221. To a noun in the singular number, ending in s or z, the apostrophe is 
sometimes added without the s, when its use would occasion a disagreeable 
harshness ; as, " Moses' disciples ; " " righteousness' sake." 

222. When the letter s added as a sign of the possessive will not coalesce 
with the noun, it adds a syllable to it ; as, Thomas's book ; church's property, 
pronounced Thomas-is, church-is. 

Note. — The possessive case of pronouns has no regular formation. 

223. The objective case denotes the object of a transitive 
verb or preposition. 

224. Nouns and pronouns are often used absolutely ; that is, 

they form no part of a regular sentence ; such nouns are said to 

be in the independent case.* 

Note. — As the form of this case is generally like that of the nominative, it 
is not given in the declension. The objective form of the pronoun is some- 
times in this case. 

* The term nominative independent or absolute, seems to be inconsistent both 
with the true definition of the nominative, and with the rules which govern its 
construction with the verb. Besides, pronouns in the objective case are some- 
times used in this way ; as, Me ! miserable. Such words might be termed 
independent or absolute, without the appendage of " case." 



68 



ETYMOLOGY. 



[§XIX. 



Section XIX. 
225. Declension of nouns and pronouns. 

NOUNS. PRONOUNS. 

REGULAR. FIRST PERSON. 



Singular, Plural. 

Norn. King, kings. 

Poss. King's, kings'. 

Obj. King, kings. 

REGULAR. 

Fox,. foxes. 

Fox's, foxes'. 

Fox, foxes. 

IRREGULAR. 

Man, men 

Man's, men's. 

Men, men. 

PROPER NOUNS. 

George, 

George's, 

George, 



ABSTRACT. 



Singular, Plural. 

Norn, I, we. 

Poss, My, mine, our. 
Obj. Me, us. 

SECOND PERSON. 

Thou, You, ye. 

Thy, thine, your. 
Thee, you. 

THIRD PERSON, (MAS.) 

He, they. 

His, their. 

Him, them. 

THIRD PERSON, (FEM.) 

She, they. 

Her, their. 

Her, them. 

THIRD PERSON, (NEUT.) 



It, 


they. 


It's, 


their. 


It, 


them. 



Virtue, 

Virtue's, 

Virtue, 

226. Mine and thine were formerly used before nouns beginning with vow- 
els, instead of my and thy. But this use is no longer retained, except in grave 
or formal style. 

227. Ours, yours, theirs, hers, and generally mine and thine, are possessive 
pronouns, used in either the nominative or objective case. 

As pronouns they represent both the possessor and the thing possessed. 

Examples. — "Your house is on the plain, ours is on the hill;" "ours" 
standing in place of "our house," is in the nominative case. " Yours is 
just received ; " that is, your letter. " Yours " is the subject of "is." * 



* See Webster, S. S. Greene, Wells, &c. 



§ XIX.] CASE. 69 

228. la most Grammars these words are treated as pronouns in the posses- 
sive case. But as they are invariably used in the place of a noun and pronoun, 
and cannot be used before nouns either expressed or understood, they have a. 
better claim to the rank of subject or object than several other words called 
compound pronouns. 

229. The pronoun you, although plural in form, represents nouns in either 
number. Thou and thee are seldom used except in grave or formal style. You, 
therefore, is the only pronoun of the second person in common use, to represent 
nouns in the singular or plural number. 

ANALYSIS AND PARSING. 

Particular attention should be given to the nouns and pronouns in the 
different cases. The rules given in Part I, should be applied here. 

The earth revolves swiftly. The boat glides rapidly down 
the stream. Fragrant flowers bloom in the garden. The lark 
mounts high in the air. 

Youth's joys depart. Edward's courage failed, in view of the 
difficulties before him. Joseph's father mourned for him. 
Washington's army suffered. The ship's crew mutinied. Bona- 
parte's soldiers conquered. 

The prince obeys the king's command. Arnold's treason dis- 
graced his name. The eagle's talons seized the prey. George 
studies Colburn's arithmetic. The sun's rays disperse the dark- 
ness. The youth's diligence deserves praise. They took Jo- 
seph's coat, and killed a kid of the goats, and dipped the coat in 
the blood. 

We compel them. I hear your request. She fears him. 
Thou rulest us. You believe me. Thine is the kingdom. 
They hate me. You see me. He fears my anger. It is his 
book. They care for you. We lost ours. You took mine. 
You have his book. He bought my watch. I received yours. 
We injured theirs. They came to our house. They wasted 
their property. 

ORAL EXERCISE. 

1. What does case denote ? How many principal cases ? What relations 
does the nominative case denote ? When the nominative denotes the subject, 
what is it called ? Ans. Subject nominative. When a nominative occurs in 
the predicate, what is it termed ? Ans. The predicate nominative. In the 
sentence " Time is money," which is the subject nominative V Which the 
predicate nominative ? 



70 ETYMOLOGY. [§ XX. 

2. What does the possessive case denote ? How is it generally formed ? 
What does the objective case denote V Decline " king," " fox," " man," and 
the pronouns, " I," " thou," " he," " she," " it." What is said of " mine," and 
u thine ? " Of " ours," " yours," " theirs," &c. ? Can they stand before nouns ? 
In what case are these words considered to be by most grammarians ? What 
is an objection to their being considered in the possessive case ? 



Section XX* 
VERBS. 

230. A Verb is a word by means of which something is 
affirmed.* 

Note. — The word "affirm" is intended to apply to the office of the verb 
in direct and indirect assertions ; also in expressing command, entreaty, and 
inquiry. 

CLASSES. 

231. Verbs are divided into two general classes, namely: 
Transitive and Intransitive ; and into five subordinate 
classes, namely: regular, irregular, auxiliary, defective, 
and impersonal. 

transitive verbs. 

232. A Transitive Verb is one that requires an object to com- 
plete the sense ; as, " Fire consumes" (what ?) ; the addition of 
an object is required to complete the sense. See 92. 

Note. — The term "transitive" is applicable to the active form only of 
this class of verbs. See 239. 

233. The object is sometimes omitted, when it is suggested by the connec- 
tion, or when the verb expresses a customary act ; as, " The husbandman 
ploughs, sows, and reaps." The object of each of these verbs is naturally 
suggested; as, "Ploughs the ground, sows the seed, and reaps the grain." 

* The chief characteristics of this important part of speech, appearing in 
the numerous definitions of it, have been its necessity to every sentence of 
affirmation, energy, action, suffering, being, time, number, and person. Every 
verb, whilst it implies time, predicates or connects an attribute, or expresses 
action. — Dr. Wilson. 

Assertion or affirmation is the act peculiar to the verb, being never per- 
formed by any word which grammarians have referred to a different part of 
speech. — Edinburgh Encyclopaedia, Art Gram. 



§ XX.] TERBS. 71 

234. Transitive verbs express an action which an agent or doer exerts 
upon, or in reference to, some person or thing; and it is called transitive from 
its appearing to be the means of passing over or transferring this action. It 
is a convenient term, but calculated to mislead the learner in regard to th.3 
real nature of the verb. The verb has no agency in either exerting or trans- 
ferring the action, but stands simply as the sign of an action, or as the m& 
dium which the writer or speaker employs in affirming the action. 

INTRANSITIVE VERBS. 

235. An intransitive verb is one that does not require an 
object to complete the sense ; as, I stand; he sits. 

236. Some verbs of this class are transitive in relation to an object that 
has a meaning similar to their own; as, "To dream a dream;" "to run a 
race; " " to live a life" &c. 

237. It is to be understood that the term object, used in connection with 
transitive and intransitive verbs, usually has reference to a noun or pronoun 
in the objective case, used immediately after a verb, without a preposition 
expressed or understood. 

238. It frequently happens, however, that verbs called "intransitive" 
express action as exerted upon an object in the strongest manner, through the 
medium of a preposition; as, "He stamped upon the ground;" "they fell 
upon the enemy." In such instances the preposition seems to combine with 
the verb, and together they form a compound expression, equivalent to a 
transitive verb. 

VOICE. 

239. Verbs used transitively have two forms, called active 
and passive voices. 

240. In the active voice the subject of the verb is represented 
as acting upon an object ; as, " The sun warms the earth." 

241. In the passive voice the subject of the verb is repre- 
sented as being acted upon ; as, " The earth is warmed by the 
sun." * 

242. In both of these examples the sense is the same, but the form of the 
expression is entirely changed. The object "earth," in the active form, has 
become the subject in the passive, while the agent " sun " appears in the pas- 
sive form as the object of the preposition by. 

Note. — As a convenient mode of expression, the term passive verb is some- 
times applied to the passive form of a transitive verb. 

* When a nominative is the name of an agent, the verb is said to be active. 
When it is the name of an object, it is said to be passive. This mode of ex- 
pression is illogical, for it is the noun that becomes active in one instance and 
passive in the other. — Edinburgh Encyclopaedia. 



72 ETYMOLOGY, 



EXERCISE. 



XX. 



Change the verbs in the following expressions to the passive form. 
The hunter kills the fox. The wind shakes the trees. 

The farmer tills the ground. The sun melts the snow. 
The waves toss the ship. The wood- cutter fells trees. 

243. A few intransitive verbs are used in the passive form 
by reputable writers. The following expressions occur in 
Gray's Letters : "I am this night arrived here." "I am 
to-day just returned from Alba." So in Shakspeare : " He is 
not yet arrived;" "Who 'tis that is arrived T" Such usage 
with these verbs, however, is not general among good writers. 
It should be, " I have arrived ; " "I have returned," &c. But 
a passive form of the verbs come, go, become, rise, set, fall, groiv, 
and some others, is in common use. " Is Hector arrived and 
gone?" — Troilus. "My lord, your loving nephew now is come" 
"Richard, my friend, is he come?" — King Henry VI "The 
sun is risen" " Christ is risen indeed." " The park that sur- 
rounded the house was all run wild, and the trees were grown 
out of shape." — Irving.* • 

Note. — Some verbs are used transitively and intransitively in the same 
form ; as, " They cut the tree." " The fir cuts more easily than the oak."f 

ORAL EXERCISE. 

Into what two general classes are verbs divided? What is a transitive 
verb? an intransitive? The "bird flies." What kind of a verb is flies? 
Why ? " The husbandman tills the ground." What kind of a verb is tills ? 
Why ? What is its object ? Is the object ever omitted ? Give an example. 

Do intransitive verbs ever have an object? Do intransitive verbs ever 
express action ? What forms have transitive verbs ? How is the subject 
represented in the active form? in the passive form? Give examples of 

*The neuter [intransitive] admits in many instances a passive form, 
retaining still the neuter signification ; chiefly in such verbs as signify some 
sort of motion, or change of place or condition; as, "I am come;" "I was 
gone;" "I am groivn;" "I ivas fallen." I doubt much the propriety of the 
following examples; "We are swerved." Tillotson. "The obligation was 
ceased." lb. " Whose number was amounted." Swift. — Lowth. 

f Transitive verbs in English are sometimes used without an objective case, 
in a sense between the active and passive voices ; as, " I taste the apple ; " 
"the apple is tasted by me;" "the apple tastes sweet;" "the field ploughs 
weLL" — HarL 



§XXI.] MODES OF THE VERB. 73 

both forms. Do any intransitive verbs admit of a passive form ? Give an 
example. Are the expressions, "is arrived," " is returned," strictly proper ? 
Why is the expression, " is perished," improper ? What should it be ? 



Section XXI. 

MODES. 

244. Mode (Latin, modus, "manner/') is a form of the verb 
■which expresses the manner in which something is affirmed. 

245. Some of the different modes in which the verb is used 
are as follows : 

1. We say, the flower blooms, the flower bloomed, the flower 
will bloom, the flower has bloomed, or has the flower bloomed f 

This manner of asserting or inquiring is called the indica- 
tive mode. 

Note. — Indicative means "showing," or "declaring." 

2. We say, the child may learn, can learn, must learn, could 
learn, should learn, or can he learn ? must he learn ? &c. 

This manner of asserting or inquiring is called the poten- 
tial mode. 

Note. — Potential (Latin, potens, " able," " having power,") signifies having 
power or ability. 

3. We say, learn thou, obey ye, do, go. 

This manner of speaking is called the imperative mode or 
manner. 

Note. — Imperative signifies "commanding." 

4. We say, to read, to have read. 

This manner of speaking is called the infinitive mode. 

Note. — Infinitive (Latin, infinitum " unlimited," ) signifies "in an unlimited 
manner." 



5. We say, if it rains, suppose it should rain, lest it should 
rain, unless it rains. 

This manner of speaking is called the subjunctive mode.* 

* The following are appellations given to modes of assertion by different 
"writers. 

Personative> impersonative, the indicative, declarative, definitive, the rog • 
ative, interrogative, requisitive, percontative, assertative, enunciative, vocative f 

7 



74 ETYMOLOGY. [§ XXI. 

Note. — Subjunctive (Latin, subjungo, "to subjoin,") signifies subjoined to. 
This mode is called subjunctive, because the clause in which it occurs must 
be "subjoined to," or connected with some other clause to make complete 
sense ; as, "If it rains," expresses only a supposition; but when subjoined to 
"I cannot work," the sense is complete. 

ORAL EXERCISE. 

In what mode are the following assertions: "I love," "I have loved," " I 
will love," "I loved." Why? 

In what mode are the following assertions : " I may love," " I might love," 
"I can love," "I must love." Why? Ans. They imply power, ability, ne- 
cessity, or obligation. 

In what mode are the following expressions : " See thou," " see," "see ye," 
believe him," " obey your rulers." Why? 

In what mode are the following expressions: "To do," "to learn," "to 
speak," " to have seen." Why? 

In what mode are the following expressions: "If I love," "unless you 
bear." 

How many modes have been mentioned ? What are they ? 

EXERCISE. 

Put each of the following verbs in all the different modes. 

Model 

Verb — make. Indicative. —I make, I made, I have made, I shall 
make. 

Potential. — I may or can make, I might make, I may have made. 
Subjunctive. — If I make, lest I make, unless I make. 
Imperative. — Make, make thou, make ye, do make. 
Infinitive. — To make, to have made. 

VERBS. 

Command. Deny. Praise. 

Obey. Forgive. Blame. 

Speak. Turn. Walk. 

246. As the verb is the only medium of expressing an assertion or affirraa 
tion, the different ways of asserting are called the modes of the verb. Of 
these, there are commonly reckoned five, namely : the indicative, the potential, 
the subjunctive, the imperative, and the infinitive. 

Note. — Several grammarians of high authority consider the participle a 
mode of the verb, which they call the participial mode. 

precative, deprecative, responsive, concessive, permissive, promissive, adhor- 
tative, optative, dubitative, imperative, mandative, conjunctive, subjunctive, 
adjunctive, potential, participial, infinitive. &c. 



§ XXI.] MODES OF THE VERB. 75 

MODES OF THE VERB. 

247. The Indicative Mode is the form of the verb used 
simply to affirm or declare something; as, "He writes" 
"He will come" 

248. The Potential Mode is the form used to affirm 
something as possible, obligatory, or necessary; as, " He 
may write" " He can ivrite" " He should write" " He 
must write" 

249. This mode may be known by the sign may, can, must, might, could, 
would, or should. 

Note. — As the peculiar import of this mode depends upon the signification 
of the auxiliaries may, can, &c, the learner is referred to the explanation of 
these verbs in 318, 1, 2, 3, &c. 

250. Both the potential and indicative modes, are used in asking questions 
of an import corresponding to their different significations.* 

251. The Subjunctive Mode is the form used to represent 
something as uncertain, conditional, or contingent ; as, "If 
it is true, it is unaccountable. " 

252. The subjunctive mode may be known generally by the signs if, 
though, except, unless, whether, lest, suppose, or any other word that implies un- 
certainty, condition, or supposition. 

253. The sign, however, is often omitted, especially before the verbs were, 
had, could, and should as, a Were I T " " Had I the wings of a dove,'' for 
"If I were," "If I had," &c. 

254. The Imperative Mode is used to command, entreat, 
exhort, or permit; as, "Go," "Come thoa," "Obey" 

255. The Infinitive Mode is used to express an action, or 
state, in an unlimited manner; as, " To live," " To Jcnoiv," 
" To have known" 

It is known by the sign to, which precedes the verb. 

256. A verb in the infinitive has properties in common both with the noun 
and the verb. Like a verb, when transitive, it is limited by an object. It also 
expresses an action, or a state of being, and in some of its relations implies time ; 
and like the verb, when transitive, it admits of an active and a passive form. 



* The interrogative form is no other than the indicative, with such accen- 
tuation or transposition of words as to show the doubt of the speaker, and 
sometimes with an interrogative particle prefixed. — Edinb. Eac* 



76 ETYMOLOGY. [§XXII. 

Like the noun, it is used in the nominative case both as subject and attribute, 
and in the objective case as the object of a transitive verb. It does not take an 
adjective before it, but when used as the subject of a proposition, it may have 
& predicate adjective belonging to it. 

EXERCISE. 

Mention the mode and the class of the verbs, or answer the questions, what 
kind of verb, transitive or intransitive ? In what mode ? Why ? 

The sun warms the earth. James should love his book. 

I will walk in the field. George must not kill the bird. If 

sinners entice thee, consent thou not. Love justice. Speak 

the truth. He wished he could learn. He might learn if he 

would. I must go. Suppose it should rain. If it should 

rain I shall not go. He should strive to improve. Go and do 

likewise. Seek peace and pursue it. Does he believe the 

rumor ? Must I go ? 

REVIEW. 

How many modes have verbs V Name them. What is the office of the in- 
dicative mode V What does the potential mode imply? The subjunctive 
mode ? How may the potential mode be known ? What words are signs of 
the subjunctive mode ? Is the sign ever omitted ? Give an example. How 
is the imperative mode used ? What does the infinitive mode express ? How 
may the infinitive be known ? In what respects is the infinitive mode like a 
noun ? In what respects is it like a verb V 



Section XXII. 

TENSE. 

257. Tense signifies " time." (French, temps, or Latin, tern- 
pus, " time.") 

"We speak of actions or events as taking place in different 
times. 

1, We say "the flowers bloom," in the present time; — 2, 
" the flower bloomed," in past time ; — 3, " the flower will 
bloom," in future time. 

ORAL EXERCISE. 

How many kinds of time have been mentioned ? Put the verb love in the 
present, past and future time* Put the verb to study in the present, past and 



§ XXII.] TENSES OF THE VERB. 77 

future time or tense. I walk ; is the verb walk in the present or past time or 
tense ? / walked, in what time ? What is the future time or tense of the 
verb walk ? 

Use the following verbs to express something in the present, past and fu- 
ture time. The pronouns /, we and they, may be used. 

Strike. Learn. Talk. Hear. See. "Work. Look. Hides. 
Believe. 

258. Besides the three general divisions of time mentioned, 
there are some subordinate divisions. 

1. We say, "the flower had bloomed;" that is, before some 
other occurrence had taken place ; as, " Before I came the 
flower had bloomed." This is a division of past time. 

2. We say, " the flowers have bloomed ; " that is, at a time be- 
fore the present, but it is not certain whether it bloomed a mo- 
ment ago, or at a period considerably distant. 

This is also a division of past 'time, 

3. We say, "The flower will have bloomed;" that is, at or 
before some other occurrence will take place ; as, u The flower 
will have bloomed before we shall return." This is a division 
of future time, 

ORAL EXERCISE. 

I love, I loved, I have loved, I had loved, I shall or will love, I shall have 
loved. 

In how many different times is the verb love used V 

Put the verb play in the different times or tenses ; also the verbs hate, de- 
stroy, praise and blame. 

How many divisions of time have been made ? Ans. Six. 

How many divisions of past time has the verb ? Ans. Three, called the 
Imperfect or Past tense ; as, I loved ; the Perfect tense ; as, I have loved, and 
the Pluperfect tense ; as. I had loved. 

How many divisions of future time has the verb? Ans. Two, the First 
Future tense ; as, I shall cr will love ; and the Second Future tense ; as, I 
shall have loved. 

TENSES OF THE VERB. 

259. Tense is the distinction of time. There are six 
tenses, called the Present, the Imperfect or Past, the Per- 



78 ETYMOLOGY. [§ XXII. 

feet, the Pluperfect, the First Future and the Second 
Future. 

260. Verbs have two forms in each tense, called Simple 
and Progressive. I vjrite, wrote, have written, shall or 
will write, or shall have written, are simple forms, and mark 
time by themselves with less precision than the progressive 
forms. 

261. The Progressive Form consists of the participle in 
ing, and some form of the verb be. It denotes an action or 
event going on at the time specified ; as, I am writing, was 
writing, have been writing, shall be writing, &c. 

TENSES OF THE INDICATIVE MODE. 
THE PRESENT TENSE. 

262. The Present Tense denotes the present time of an 
action or event ; as, " I am writing." " I write." 

263. The simple form expresses what is customary or what is always true ; 
as, " The sun rises and sets." " God is eternal." 

It embraces any extension of time, a portion of which is included in the 
present ; as, " Caligula is justly abhorred for his cruelty; " that is, was and still 
is abhorred. 

This form is sometimes used in the narration of past events, to impart 
spirit and vivacity to the style ; as, " Heights, conquers, and takes an immense 
"booty which he divides among his soldiers and returns home." 

264. This form sometimes refers to future time, especially when preceded 
by the words when, before, after, as soon as, &c. ; as, " When he arrives he 
will hear the news. Mr. Coleman goes off for Boston to-morrow." — J. Adams; 
Let. CXLVIII. 

265. The progressive form of this tense expresses what is passing in the 
present moment ; as, " He is reading. 11 

THE IMPERFECT TENSE. 

266. The Imperfect Tense denotes simply the past time 
of an action or event ; as, " I wrote." " I was writing." 

267. The simple form expresses an action or event as completed in past 
time ; as, " The ship sailed yesterday." 



§ XXII.] THE VERB — TENSES. 79 

268. The progressive form of this tense expresses an action or event a3 
going on at some specified past time ; as, " I was writing yesterday, when you 
called to me." 

269. This tense is called by some writers the past or preterit tense. The 
term imperfect is not strictly applicable, except to the progressive form. 

THE PERFECT TENSE. 

270. The Perfect Tense denotes past time with some 
reference to the present ; as, " I have written" " I have 
been writing" 

The sign of this tense is have. 

271. The simple form of a verb in this tense expresses an action or event 
that took place at any period of past time, together with the idea of continu- 
ance to some period of time up to the present moment ; as, " Philosophers have 
made great discoveries in the present century." Here the action spoken of is 
past, but still the idea of continuance to the present time is distinctly implied 
in the expression "present century." 

272. This form expresses also an action or event as just finished ; as, " I 
have spoken freely what I had to say."* 

273. The progressive form of this tense expresses an action or event as 
going on in past time, but continuing to the present; as, "I have been waiting a 
day, a month, or a year," &c. The duration of the action is determined by 
some limiting word or adjunct. 

274. A verb in this tense sometimes denotes a future action or event, if 
preceded by when, before, as soon as, &c. ; as, " We will go as soon, as we have 
completed our work." 

Note. — This tense is termed completive present by Harris; by Lowth, 
Ward, &c, present perfect ; by Murray, Webster, &c, perfect. 

PLUPERFECT TENSE. 

275. The Pluperfect Tense denotes time past at or before 
some other specified past time ; as, " I had finished my letter 

^This is also called the present perfect tense, as it denotes actions done in 
three degrees or distinctions of time, all terminating with the present : that is, 
either without any time intervening between their being done and the present 
time ; or within some compass, or certain portion of time extending to the 
present. Thus in the first degree we say, "I have now written my letter;" 
which intimates that no space of time intervened between the action and the 
time of speaking. 

In the second degree we say, " I have written a letter this morning ; " when 
nothing is determined, but that the action was done within that space of time. 
Wherefore in speaking of the same action in the afternoon, it is proper to say, 
"I wrote a letter this morning," not "I have written," &c. In the third de- 

free we may say, " Cicero has written three books of offices," or M moral 
uties ; " where, notwithstanding these books were written many ages since, 
yet as the expression is general and no intimation given of any intermediate 
space, we use this tense. See Essays on Language, by John Ward, 



80 ETYMOLOGY. [§ XXII* 

before he arrived." " Had finished," is in the pluperfect 
tense. 

This tense may be known by its sign " had." 

276. This tense has the same relation to the imperfect as the perfect has to 
the present. A verb in this tense expresses something anterior to the imper 
feet, but extending to it in some relation ; as, " Many discoveries had been 
made in the arts and sciences before the days of Bacon." 

FIRST FUTURE TENSE. 

277. The First Future Tense denotes simply future time ; 
as 5 " I shall write" or " shall be writing." 

The sign of this tense is shall or will. 

SECOND FUTURE. 

278. The Second Future Tense denotes time that will be 
past at or before some future time specified ; as, " They 
will have finished their work by the appointed time." 

279. This tense may be known by the sign, shall have. 

Note. — Various other distinctions in time are denoted by adverbs, adjuncts, 
and modifying clauses 

REVIEW. 

What is tense ? How many tenses ? What two forms in each tense hare 
verbs ? What does the present tense denote ? What does the simple form of 
a verb in this tense express ? Is the present ever used in the narration of 
past events '? For what purpose ? When does this tense denote future time ? 
How does the progressive form of this tense express an action or event ? 

What does the "imperfect tense denote ? How does the simple form express 
an action ? The progressive form ? By what other terms is this tense some- 
times called ? 

What does the perfect tense denote ? What is the sign of this tense V How 
does this tense differ from the imperfect ? Does a verb in this tense ever de- 
note a future action ? 

W r hat does the pluperfect tense denote ? WTiat is its sign ? WTiat relation 
does this tense have to the imperfect ? What does the first future tense de- 
note ? What is its sign ? What does the second future denote ? What is its 
sign ? 

ANALYSIS AND PARSING. 

In this exercise the learner should be particular to specify the class, mcie, 
and tense of the verb, or to answer the following questions in parsing it. 
W r hy a verb ? transitive or intransitive ? why ? In what mode ? why ? In 
what tense ? why ? 

We have dismal accounts from Europe of the preparations 
against us. 

The summer will be very important to us. 



§ XXV.] THE VERB — TENSES. 81 

We shall have a severe trial of our patience, fortitude, and 
perseverance. 

Mr. Keed, formerly General Washington's Secretary, goes 
with Mr. Dickinson. (How is the present tense used in this 
sentence ? ) 

Education makes a great difference between man and man. 

This morning * I received your two letters. 

I have this morning * been out of town with Generals Wash- 
ington, Lee, and Schuyler. 

I am reading history. He has been reading poetry 

TO BE CORRECTED. 

I have attended church last sabbath. This year I saved my 
wages. I have expected a letter a month ago. I see him 
yesterday. I have seen him last week. We escaped many 
dangers through life. I see a wagon yesterday drawn by four 
elephants. I had pleasing intelligence to-day. I never see 
such a sight before. 

Section XXIII. 

TENSES OF THE POTENTIAL MODE. 

280. This Mode has four tenses, viz., the present, the imper- 
fect, the perfect, and the pluperfect. 

281. The present'and imperfect tenses of this mode are less definite in 
regard to time than the same tenses of the indicative mode. For example, 
/ may go, he may go, I can go, are forms of the present tense, potential mode, 
but by themselves they mark no precise time. 

282. / might go, I could go, he should go, &c., are forms of the imperfect 
tense, but alone they imply no definite time. 

283. These tenses seldom mark time definitely, except when some limiting 
word, phrase, or clause is added ; as, I may go to-morrow, I would like to go 
to-day, he should go instantly, he said he would go to-morrow. 

TENSES OF THE SUBJUNCTIVE MODE. 

284. The Subjunctive Mode has all the tenses of the indica- 
tive, but is more commonly employed in the present, imperfect. 



* See Rule X, Part IV. 



82 ■ ETYMOLOGY. [§ XXIV. 

and perfect tenses ; as, If I go, if he would come, if we have 
sinned, &c. 

285. The present tense generally expresses a condition on which some- 
thing future is asserted ; as, " If I justify myself, mine own mouth shall con 
demn me ; " " If I be wicked, woe unto me." 

286. The imperfect is frequently used without marking any precise period 
of time, and may refer to the present, past, or future ; as, " Though all men 
should be offended because of thee, yet will I never be offended." 

287. In a negative sentence the subjunctive mode often implies an affirma- 
tion ; as, " I would take a walk if it did not rain ; " implying that it does rain ; 
and on the other hand, in an affirmative sentence the subjunctive form often 
implies a negation ; as, " I would contribute liberally if I had the means ; " 
implying that I have not the means. 

288. This is especially true of the verb be, in one of its forms in the sub- 
junctive; as, " If it were possible, they shall deceive the very elect;" "to 
seduce, if it were possible, even the elect ; " " if it were not so I would have 
told you." 

Section XXIV. 
PAETICIPLES. 

289. A Participle is a word that partakes of the proper- 
ties of a verb and an adjective.* 

290. A verb has three participles ; a present, a perfect, and 
a compound participle. 

291. The present participle ends in ing, and implies con- 
tinuance of action ; as, Loving, having, standing, being. 

292. This participle is sometimes called the imperfect parti- 
ciple, because it denotes action going on, but not completed. 

293. The present participle implies time present, in relation to 
the time denoted by the verb of the sentence in which it stands. 

294. The perfect participle denotes action or state completed, 
as, Loved, been, stood. 

295. The perfect participle of a regular verb always ends in 
ed. For perfect participles of irregular verbs, see table of ir- 
regular verbs. 

* Every complete verb is expressive of an attribute, of time, and of asser- 
tion. Now if we take away the assertion, and thus destroy the verb, there wiil 
remain the attribute and the time, which make the essence of a participle. «— 
Harris, Hermes, Chap. X. 



§ XXIV.] THE VERB — PARTICIPLES. 83 

296. The compound participle, formed of the verb have and 
a perfect participle, denotes action or state completed, before 
some other action or event ; as, Having loved, having been. 

297. A participle sometimes performs the office of a noun; 
and is then called a participial or verbal noun ; as, " The gen- 
eral's having failed in this enterprise, occasioned his disgrace/' 

298. The present participle of a transitive verb, though gen- 
erally active in its signification, is sometimes used passively; as, 
" The book is printing ; " " the house is building" * 

REGULAR VERBS. 

299. A Regular Verb is one which forms its imperfect tense 
and perfect participle by adding ed to the present ; as, Borrow, 
imp. borrowed, perf. part, borrowed. 

Note. — This rule is applicable only to the common form in the active voice. 

300. When a regular verb ends in silent e, it drops the e on 
receiving ed; as, Love, \ov-ed. Regular verbs ending in y, 
preceded by a consonant, change the y into i before the ed is 
added ; as, present, rarify, perfect, rarijied, perfect participle, 
rarijied. See 44. 

301. Certain regular verbs double the final consonant before 
receiving the termination ed; as, Fit, fitted ; plan, plamied; re- 
gret, regretted ; drop, dropped. See 45. 

302. An Irregular Verb is one which does not form its im- 
perfect tense and perfect participle by adding ed or d to the 
present ; as, Go, imp. went, perf. part, gone, 

EXAMPLES OF REGULAR VERBS. 

Indie Present, or root Indie. Imperfect. Perf- 'Participle. 
Love, loved, loved. 

Labor, labored, labored. 

Move, moved, moved. 

*The form of expression, "is being built," "is being committed," &c, is 
almost universally condemned by grammarians, but it is sometimes met with 
in respectable writers. — Worcester. 

" The grammar is printing ; " "the brass is forging." This is in my opinion 
a vicious expression, probably corrupted from a phrase more pure, 'but now 
somewhat obsolete; "the book is a printing;" "the brass is a forging;" a 
being properly at, and "printing" and "forging" verbal nouns, signifying 
action." — Dr. Johnson. 



84 



ETYMOLOGY. 



[§ XXIV. 



Indie. Present, or root 
Relate, 
Conceal, 
Fatigue, 
Best, 
Perform, 



Indie. Imperfect. 
related, 
concealed, 
fatigued, 
rested, 
performed, 



Per/. Participle. 
related, 
concealed, 
fatigued, 
rested, 
performed. 



Note. — The present participle is formed by annexing ing to the root. The 
silent e of the verbs ending with that letter is, with one or two exceptions, 
dropped before receiving ing ; as, love, loving ; move, moving. See rules of 
spelling. 



EXAMPLES OF IRREGULAR VERBS. 



Indie. Present, or root. 


Indie. Imperfect. 


Per/. ParticipU 


Have, 


had, 


had. 


Know, 


knew, 


known. 


Stand, 


stood, 


stood. 


Behold, 


beheld, 


beheld. 


Bring, 


brought, 


brought. 


Sting, 


stung, 


stung. 


Lay, 


laid, 


laid. 


Lie, 


lay, 


lain. 



EXERCISE. 

Write the present, perfect and compound participles of the following verbs. 

Labor. Open. Fatigue. Stand. Move. Prove. Have. 
Know. Perform. Regret. Transfer. Plan. Lay. Bring. 
Lie. Create. Command. Complain. Relate. Rest. De- 
ceive. Improve. 

ANALYSIS AND PARSING. 

Rule XI. 

803. Participles belong to nouns, which they limit or ex- 
plain. 

304. Present and compound participles of transitive 
verbs in the active form, govern* the objective case. 

Model. 
Sentence. — T)ie past participle signifies action finished. 
Analyze. "Participle" is the subject, modified by "past." The "past 
participle " is the modified subject. " Signifies " is the predicate. " Signifies 



* Government, in grammar, is the power of one word in determining the 
mode, tense or case of another. 



§ XXIV.] THE VEEB — PARTICIPLES. 85 

action finished," the modified predicate. " Finished," the participle, modifies 
action 

Participle Parsed. " Finished" is a perfect participle of the regular verb 
Jinish, and belongs tu " action." Rule. 

SENTENCES. 

He had a poniard concealed under his coat. 
However fatigued, he always returned in spirits. 
Having rested, we descended the hill. 
After having performed the ceremony, he returned. 
Jesus knowing their thoughts, rebuked them. 
I saw him laboring in the field. 

The Most High dwelleth not in temples made with hands. 
I see the heavens opened, and the Son of man standing on 
the right hand of God. 

PERSON. NUMBER. 

305. The verb receives certain endings to agree with the 
different numbers and persons of its subject. 

These endings denote two numbers, and three persons. 

PRESENT TENSE. 
EXAMPLES. 

1st person singular. 2d person singular. 3d person singular. 

I love Thou lowest He loves. 

1st person plural. 2d person plural. Zd person plural. 

We love Ye or you love They love. 

306. The ending st or est, denotes that the pronoun thou of 
the second person singular, is the subject, and the ending s or 
es denotes that some noun or pronoun of the third person singu- 
lar is the subject. These are the only variations in the present 
tense, from the simple form of the verb. Formerly, the third 
person singular of the present indicative, ended in eth ; as, He 
loveth. 

IMPERFECT TENSE. 
1st, person sing. 2d person sing. 3d person sing. 

I loved Thou loveds* He loved. 

8 



86 ETYMOLOGY. [§ XXIY. 

1st person plural 2d person plural. od person plural. 

We loved Ye or you loved They loved. 

807. The only variation in the imperfect tense, on account of number and 
person, is in the second person singular, The ending of st or est, is added to 
agree with thou. 

308. The pronoun thou and the termination st or est are not much used, ex- 
cept in grave and formal style. 

309. The pronoun you is generally employed now to represent nouns of the 
second person in both numbers, although it requires a verb in the plural 
form.* 

310. In the subjunctive present, the personal terminations were formerly 
omitted ; as, If thou love, if he love. This form is still retained to express/tore 
contingency, and is by some grammarians termed the elliptical form, used for if 
thou shalt love, if he shall laoe. 

311. In all other cases the forms of the indicative mode are used in the 
subjunctive throughout all the tenses, except in the second and third persons 
of the second future, and except also in the present and imperfect tenses of the 
verb be, which have each two forms. 

812. The imperative mode is commonly used only in the second person ; as, 
Come thou ; go ye. 

313. There are expressions, however, in which the form of the imperative 
mode is used with the third person ; as, " Be it enacted ; " u blessed be he that 
cometh ; " " fall he that must.' 1 

314. The first person is rarely used with the imperative ; as, u Well, march 
we on — meet we the medicine of the sickly weal ; and with him pour we in 
our country's purge, each drop of us." — Shakspeare. 

EXERCISE. 

Mention the class, number, person, mode, and tense of each of the following 
verbs. 

They labor. They labored. I have labored. I shall labor. 
He will labor. It moves. It moved. It will move. We 
know. We knew. We shall know. We have known. The 
bees sting. The bees stung. The bees will sting. The bees 
may sting. They can sting. They might sting. You have. 
You had. You have had. You will have. You might have. 
You may have. 

* Thou in polite, and even in familiar style, is disused, and the plural you is 
employed instead of it ; we say you have, not you hast. Though in this case we 
apply " you " to a single person, yet the verb too must agree with it in the plu- 
ral number. " You was" is a solecism, and yet authors of the first rank have 
inadvertently fallen into it. " Knowing that you was my old master's good 
friend." — Addison. Lowitis Introd. p. 48. 



XX V.] THE VERB CONJUGATION. 87 

Section XXV. 

CONJUGATION. 

315. Conjugation is the inflection of a verb in the differ- 
ent modes, tenses, numbers, and persons. 

Inflection of the verb May in the Indicative Mode, Present Tense. 



I may, first person, singular, because the pronoun / is of the first person 
singular. 

Thou mayst, second person, singular, because thou is of the second person 
singular. 

He, she, or it, may, third person, singular, because he and she and it, are of 
the third person, singular. 

Plural. 

We may, first person, plural, because we is of the first person, plural. 

Ye or you may, second person, plural, because ye and you are of the second 
person plural. 

They may, third person, plural, because the nominative they is of the third 
person, plural. 

The Principal Parts of a verb are, the Present Indicative, 
the Imperfect Indicative, and the Perfect Participle. 

AUXILIARY VERBS. 

316. Auxiliary verbs are such as are used to form some of 
the modes and tenses of other verbs. They are may, can, must, 
shall, will, have, do, be. 

317. Will, have, do, he, are also used as principal verbs. 
May, can, shall, and will (when auxiliaries) have only the 

present and imperfect tenses. 

Conjugation of may, can, shall, and will. 

PRESENT TENSE. 

Singular. 
£ J 1. I may I can I will I shall 

g > 2. Thou mayst Thou canst Thou wilt Thou shalt 

JJ ) 3. He may He can He will He shall 

Plural. 



1. We may We can We will We shaU 

2. You may You can You will You shall 

3. They may They can They will They shall 



68 







ETYMOLOGY. 


[UX' 






IMPERFECT, OR PAST. 




1. 

3. 


I might 
Thou mightst 
He might 


Singular, 
I could I would 
Thou couldst Thou wouldst 
He could He would 

Plural, 


I should 
Thou shouldst 
He should 


1. 

2, 
3. 


We might 
You might 
They might 


We could We would 
You could You would 
They could They would 


We should 
You should 
They should 



NATURE OP THE AUXILIARIES. 
MAY, CAN, MUST. 

May, ) Derived from the Saxon word magan, " to be able/' 



Might. ) "to avail." 

Can, ) From the Saxon cennan, " to know," " to contain," " to 

Gould, ) be able." 

318. May and can are used as auxiliaries in forming the 
potential present of other verbs. They were once used as 
principal verbs and were followed by an infinitive ; as, " I can 
to go," " I may to go ; " that is, " I am able to go." 

May in its present use implies, 

1. Possibility ; as, " Something may happen to defeat our plans." " He may 
complete his task if he is diligent." 

2. Ability ; as, " What he may do is of two kinds ; what he may do as just, 
and what he may do as possible." 

3. Liberty, or permission ; as, " A man may do what the laws permit." ' ' Thou 
mayst be no longer steward." " He may go, if he wishes." 

4. Wish or desire ; as, " May prosperity attend you." 

5. The expressions, may be, it may be, are equivalent to perhaps, or by 
chance ; as, " May be I will go," or, "it may be, that," &c. 

6. May is sometimes used to soften the harshness of command ; as, " You 
may give my compliments to Mr. B." 

7. Might, the past tense of may, implies also possibility, power, liberty, &c, 
and is sometimes used instead of " may," to soften the expression ; as, " that 
Ishmael might live before thee." 

Can implies power, skill, permission, possibility, or will. 

Examples. u Can faith save him?" [power.] "He caw go to-morrow." 
" The Jews could not eat certain kinds of animals," [permission.] "An astron- 
omer can calculate an eclipse," [skill.] " I cannot rise and give thee ; yet be 
cause of his importunity, he will rise and give him " [will.] 

Must implies necessity, certainty, or obligation, and has no variation to ex* 
press time, person or number. 



§ XXVI.] THE VERB — CONJUGATION. 89 

Section XXVI. 

SHALL, WILL. 

~j jj 1 From the Saxon scealan "to be obliged, 
QX 7T f formerly used as a principal verb, and fol- 

J lowed by an infinitive mode. 
w;11 1 From the Saxon willa, " to will," used still as 
W 'id i a principal verb, but more commonly as an 
J auxiliary. 
319. These verbs are now used as auxiliaries to other verbs, 
and are signs of the future tense. The following are some of 
the various shades of meaning which they admit of. 

1. Shall in the first person foretells or declares what will take place, or ex- 
presses the decision of the speaker in reference to some future action, or state ; 
as, " I shall go to morrow ; " sometimes contingently ; as, " I shall go to-morrow 
with your leave, or if the weather permit." 

2. When uttered with emphasis, u shall" in the first person, denotes the de- 
termination of the speaker ; as, " I shall go to-morrow, whether I obtain your 
leave or not." 

3. Shall in the second and third persons generally expresses the will, decision, 
permission, promise, or command of the speaker in reference to some other per- 
son or thing ; as, " He shall go ; " [it is my will to compel him to go.] " Then 
shall ye return, saith the Lord of hosts," [promise.] u Thou shalt not kill," 
[command.] " It is a mind that shall remain." 

" Shall remain ! 

Hear you this triton of the minnows ? Mark you, 
His absolute shall ! " — Shahspeare. 

4. After another verb, shall in the third person simply foretells ; as, "He 
thinks he shall succeed well." 

5. In questions, shall in the first person is used to ask permission, di- 
rection, or intention ; as, " Shall I go ? " " Shall I suffer such injustice V " 
" What shall I do ? " " Whither shall I fly ? " [direction.] " Shall he be pun- 
ished ?" " Shall you go to-morrow ? " [intention.] 

6. Shall in all the persons, denotes simply futurity after if, and some other 
vords which express a condition ; as, " If I, we, you, or he, shall go." 

7. Should in all the persons commonly expresses obligation, but after if 
though, unless, and other signs of the subjunctive, it expresses future contin 
gency ; as, " If it should happen," " though all should deny thee." 

8. Will in the first person expresses the promise or decision of the speaker ; 
as, " I will go," " I will reward you." 

9. In the second person, will simply denotes a future event ; as, " You will 
go." In questions it asks consent, or inquires for the intention of the subject ; 
as, M Will you go ? " " Will you resist ? " 

8* 



90 ETYMOLOGY. [§XXV1I. 

10. In the third person, will in most instances simply denotes futurity, 
but sometimes it expresses strong determination of the subject ; as, u He will 
not listen," i. e., he is determined not to listen. 

11. Should in the second and third p>ersons, is also used to express an event, 
under a condition or supposition ; as, " He would be censured, if he should 
remain longer." 

12. The difference between shall and will may be expressed in a general 
way as follows : 

Will in the frst person, and shall in the second and third, signify resolution. 
Simple futurity is expressed by shall in the frst, and will in the two others. 





Simple future. 




I shall, 


thou wilt, 


he will. 


We shall, 


ye will, 


they will. 



The future of determination. 
I will, thou shalt, he shall. 

We will, ye shall, they shall. 

13. Would implies will, desire, or resolution, under a condition or supposi- 
tion ; * as, " I would if I could." " I could if I would." " Would God we had 
died in Egypt." 

Section XXVII. 

320. Do, { Do, as an auxiliary, is often used in the following 
Did. \ offices : — 

1. In negative and interrogative sentences ; as, " Do you see ? " Do is the 
auxiliary of " see. " " Does he expect to come ? " " I do not know." 

2. To express emphasis ; as, " I do hate him, but will not wrong him." 

3. In the imperative mode, to express an urgent request or command ; as, 
" Do help me ; " " make haste, do." 

4. To save the repetition of another verb ; as, "I shall come, but if I do 
not, go away ; " that is, " if I come not." 

Note. — Other auxiliaries are used in a similar manner ; as, " WiUy&it 

come ? " " I will; " that is, I will come. 

5. Do is sometimes used expletively ; as, " I do love," for " I love." " Ex- 
pletives, their feeble aid do join."— Pope. 

6. Did is sometimes used to express opposition ; as, " I did honor him, but 
now despise him." 

* The condition implied in " would " is not always expressed. " By pleas- 
ure and pain / would be understood to mean what delights or molests us ; " 
that is, if it should be asked what I mean by pleasure and pain, I would thus 
explain what I wish to have understood. In this form of expression, which is 
very common, there seems to be implied an allusion to an inquiry, or to the 
supposition of something not expressed. — Webster. 



§ XXVII.] THE VERB BE. 91 

7. Do, when used before a verb, except in the imperative mode, is the sign 
of the present tense. 

8. Did, when used before a verb, is the sign of the imperfect tense. 

THE VERB BE. 

321. The common use of the verb to be is to assert a con- 
nection between a subject and an attribute of it ; as, " Gold is a 
metal." A connection between gold and metal is asserted to 
exist by the copula is. 

322. This verb with a participle in ing constitutes the pro- 
gressive form in each tense of every other verb ; as, " I am 
writing," "'I was writing," &c. 

323. It is also used with a past participle of the transitive 
verb, to form the passive voice ; as, " He is moved ; " " he will 
be moved," &c. 

324. The important office of this verb in asserting or indicating a connec- 
tion between a subject and its attribute, will appear by omitting the verb, and 
thus bringing the noun and the attribute together ; as, "He writing." 

325. The juxtaposition of the words might denote that writing is an attri- 
bute of he, but in order to assert positively the fact of writing, the copula must 
be inserted. 

326. This verb sometimes expresses simply existence ; as, " Whatever is, is 
right." The first is expresses simply existence, and is synonymous with the 
verb exists. 

327. This verb is irregular in its conjugation, as well as in the formation of 
its imperfect tense and perfect participle. 

Note. — Were is sometimes used instead of the imperfect potential, for 
would be ; as, " It were useless to attempt it ; " "It were unwise to pursue any 
other course." 

EXERCISE. 

Point out the auxiliaries to the following verbs, and mention the mode and 
tense of each principal verb. 

I have moved. They had called. We shall move. I will 

write. They have elected. He has read. They will come. 

They will have learned. I may go. May he go ? Can he 

go ? He must go. They cannot go. They might go. They 

could succeed. They would learn, if they would try. They 

must have been informed. I did not know. You might have 

known. 

Note. — The auxiliary is often separated from the principal verb by one or 
more intervening words ; as, " The accused wiU certainly be convicted^* 



92 ETYMOLOGY. [§ XXVIII. 

Section XXVIII. 

328. Conjugation of the verb Have. 

PRINCIPAL PARTS. 

Present or root. Imperfect. Perfect participle. 

Have. Had. Had. 

INFINITIVE MODE. 

Present. Have. Perfect. To have had. 

PARTICIPLES. 

Present. Having. Perfect. Had. Compound. Having had 

INDICATIVE MODE. 









Present 


tense. 






Singular. 






Plural. 


fc * 


M- 


I have. 






1. We have. 


s 


U. 


Thou hast. 






2. You * have. 


E. 


)3. 


He has. 






3. They have. 








Imperfect 


1 tense. 






Singular. 






Plural. 




1. 


I had. 






1. We had. 




2. 


Thou hadst 






2. You had. 




3. 


He had. 






3. They had. 






Perfect. 


Sign — have. 






Singular. 






Plural. 




1. 


I have had. 






1. We have had. 




2. 


Thou hast had. 






2. You have had. 




3. 


He has had. 






3. They have had. 






Pluperfect 


tense. 


Sign — had. 






Singular. 






Plural. 




1. 


I had had. 






1. We had had. 




2. 


Thou hadst had 






2. You had had. 




3. 


He had had. 






3. They had had. 



* Ye and you require the same form of the verb. As you is the common 
form, ye is not used in the conjugation. 



§ XXVIII.] THE VERB — HAVE. 93 

First Future. Sign — shall or wiU. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I shall or will have. 1. . We shall or will have. 

2. Thou shalt or wilt have. 2. You shall or will have. 
8. He shall or will have. 3. They shall or will have. 

Second Future. Sign — shall or will have. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I shall have had. 1. We shall have had. 

2. Thou shalt or wilt have had. 2. You shall or will have had. 

3. He shall or will have had. 3. They shall or will have had. 

POTENTIAL MODE. 

Present tense. Sign — may, can, or must have. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I may* have. 1. We may have. 

2. Thou mayst have. 2. You may have. 

3. He may or can have. 3. They may have. 

Imperfect tense. Sign — might, could, would, or should. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I might have. 1. We might have. 

2. Thou mightst have. 2. You might have. 

3. He might have. 3. They might have. 

Perfect tense. Sign — may, can, or must have. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I may have had. 1. We may have had. 

2. Thou mayst have had. 2. You may have had. 

3. He may have had. 3. They may have had. 

Pluperfect tense. 
Sign — might, could, would, or should have. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I might have had. 1. We might have had. 

2. Thou mightst have had. 2. You might have had. 

3. He might have had. 3. They might have had. 

* The verb may be conjugated with either auxiliary : as, I may have, or 1 
tan have, or I must have. 



94 ETYMOLOGY. [§ XXIX. 

IMPERATIVE MODE. 

Have thou. Have ye. 

SUBJUNCTIVE MODE. 

Present tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. If I have or may have. * 1. If we have or may have. 

2. If thou hast or mayst have. 2. If you have or may have. 

3. If he has or may have. 3. If they have or may have. 

Or thus; (310.) 
Singular. Plural. 

1. If I have. 1. If we have. 

2. If thou have. 2. If you have. 

3. If he have. 3. If they have. 

Imperfect tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. If I had or could have. 1. If we have or could have. 

2. If thou hadst, &c. 2. If you have, &c. 

3. If he had, &c. 3. If they have, &c. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. Had I or could I have. 1. Had we or could we have. 

2. Hadst thou, &c. 2. Had you, &c. 

3. Had he, &c. 3. Had they, &c. 

Note. — The other tenses of the subjunctive are conjugated like the cor- 
responding tenses of the indicative and potential modes, by prefixing the sub- 
junctive sign, except the second and third persons of the second future, which 
require shall instead of will, (311 ) 



Section XXIX. 

329. Conjugation of the Verb Be. 

principal parts. 

Present or root. Imperfect. Perfect participle. 

Am or be. Was. Been. 

INFINITIVE MODE. 

Present. To be. Perfect. To have been. 

* The subjunctive mode differs not in the least from the indicative, and to 
form it, the learner has only to prefix a sign of condition ; as, if though, un 
less, &c, to the indicative, in its several tenses ; with this exception, however, 
that in the future tense the auxiliary may^ be, and often is, suppressed. Thus, 
instead of If I shall love f &c, authors write, If Hove^ &c* — Webster. 



§ XXIX.] 



THE VERB — HAVE. 



94 



PARTICIPLES. 

Present. Being. Perfect. Been. Compound. Having been. 

INDICATIVE MODE. 



X 


1 L 


Preset 
I am. 


tense. * 

Plural. 
1. We are. 


© 


1 2. 


Thou art. 


2. You are. 




J 3. 


He is. 


3. They are 






Imperfect tense. 
Singular. Plural. 




1. 


I was. 


1. We were. 




2. 


Thou wast. 


2. You were. 




3 


He was. 


3. They were. 






Perfect tense. 

Singular. 


Sign — have. 

Plural. 




1. 


I have been. 


1. We have been. 




2. 


Thou hast been. 


2. You have been. 




3. 


He has been. 


3. They have been. 






Pluperfect tense. 


Sign — had. 






Singular. 


Plural. 




1. 


I had been. 


1. We had been. 




2. 


Thou hadst been. 


2. You had been. 




3. 


He had been. 


3. They had been. 






First Future tense. 


Sign — shall or will. 






Singular. 


Plural. 




1. 


I shall or will be. 


1. We shall or will be. 




2. 


Thou shalt or wilt be. 


2. You shall or will be. 




3. 


He shall or will be. 


3. Thev shall or will be. 



Second Future. Sign — shall have. 



Singidar. 

1. I shall have been. 

2. Thou shalt or wilt, &c. 

3. He shall or will, &c. 



Plural. 

1. We shall have been. 

2. You shall or will have been. 

3. They shall or will have been. 



* The, thou beest.webe. &c, is an ancient form, and nearly obsolete. 



96 ETYMOLOGY. [§ XXIX. 

POTENTIAL MODE. 

Present tense. Sign — may. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I may be. 1. We may be. 

2. Thou mayst be. 2. You may be. 

3. He may be. 3. They may be. 

Imperfect tense. Sign ■ — might, could, would, or should. 
Singular. Plural. * 

1. I might be. 1. We might be, 

2. Thou mightst be. 2. You might be. 

3. He might be. 3. They might be. 

Perfect tense. Sign — may, can, or must have. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I may have been. 1. We may have been. 

2. Thou mayst have been. 2. You may have been. 

3. He may have been. 3. They may have been. 

Pluperfect tense. 

Sign — might, could, ivould, or should have. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I might have been. 1. We might have been. 

2. 

3. 



u mightst have been. 


2. 


You might have been. 


might have been. 


3. 


They might have been. 


IMPERATIVE 


MODE. 




Singular. 






Plural. 


Be thou. 






Be you, 


SUBJUNCTIVE 


MODE 




Present tense. 






Singular. 






Plural 


1. If lam. 






1. If we are. 


2. If thou art. 






2. If you are. 


3. If he is. 






3. If they are. 



§ XXIX.] THE VERB — TENSES. 97 

Or Thus: 
Singular. Plural, 

1. If I be.* 1. If we be. 

2. If thou be. 2. If you be. 

3. If lie be. 3. If they be. 

Imperfect tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. If I was. 1. If we were. 

2. If thou wast. 2. If you were. 

3. If he was. 3. If they were. 

Or thus : 
Singular. Plural. 

1. If I were or were I, * (288.) * 1. If we were or were we. 

2. If thou wert or wert thou. 2. If you were or were you. 

3. If he were or were he. 3. If they were or were they. 

Note. — Conjugate throughout like the indicative, except as stated in Note 
under the subjunctive mode in the conjugation of Have. 

EXERCISE. 

The learner may point out the mode, tense, number and person of the verbs 
have and be. 

I have had. I had been. I shall be. I shall have been. I 
can be. He may have. He may be. May he be ? May he 
have ? We must have. We must be. We may have been. 
We must have been. I might be. I might have. They could 
have. They should have. He would have been. He might 
have been. You were. You have been. You might be. You 
could be. You should be. They were. He was. We are. 
We have. We had. You had. They have been. 

TO BE CORRECTED. 

You was. They has been. When was you there ? There 
has been men who disbelieved the existence of God. There is 

* The form, If I be, sometimes called the elliptical form, from its being 
used as a conditional future for shall be, is often employed instead of the more 
common form, If lam, &c. The form If I were, or Were I, is also elliptical, 
and used in the sense of " could be." 



98 ETYMOLOGY. [§ XXX. 

some sweet flowers. We was ten days on our journey. There 
was men, women and children in the assembly. I be contented. 
They be robbers. We be true men. Was* you there ? 

COMPOSITION. 
Let each sentence include one of the following expressions. 
Have. Has. Am. Was. Were. Has been. Have been. 
Would be. Shall be. Was. Were. Might have. Could have. 



Section XXX. 
330. Conjugation of the regular Verb Love. 

ACTIVE VOICE. 

principal parts. 

Present, or root. Imperfect Perfect Participle. 

Love. Loved. Loved. 

infinitive mode. 

Present, To love. Perfect. To have loved. 

« PARTICIPLES. 

Present. Loving. Perfect. Loved. Compound. Having loved 

INDICATIVE MODE. 

Present Tense. 
Singular, Plural. 

1. I love. 1. We love. 

2. Thou lovest. 2. You love. 

3. He loves. 3. They love. 

*This nse of "was" with the pronoun you, is defended by some gram- 
marians, on account of its frequent occurrence in common discourse, and its 
occasional use by good writers and speakers. Furthermore it is said, that as 
you is used in the singular number, the verb may also be singular to agree 
with it. But the common rule for the agreement of a verb with its subject- 
nominative, is thus violated in respect to both number and person; and 
pothing but unquestionable authority can. justify so palpable a solecism, 



§xxx.] 



THE VERB — TENSES. 



99 



Imperfect tense. 



Singular. 

1. I loved. 

2. Thou lcvedst. 

3. He loved. 

Perfect tense. 
Singular. 

1. I have loved. 

2. Thou hast loved. 

3. He has loved. 

Pluperfect tense. 
Singular. 

1. I had loved. 

2. Thou hadst loved. 
8. He had loved. 



Plural. 

1. We loved. 

2. You loved. 

3. They loved. 

Sign — have. 

Plural. 

1. We have loved. 

2. You have loved. 

3. They have loved. 

Sign — had. 

Plural. 

1. We had loved. 

2. You had loved. 

3. They had loved. 



First Future. 
Singular. 

1. I shall or will love. 

2. Thou shalt or wilt love. 

3. He shall or will love. 



Sign — shall or will. 

Plural. 

1. We shall or will love. 

2. You shall or will love. 

3. They shall or will love. 



Second Future. Sign — shall or will have. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I shall have loved. 1. We shall have loved. 

2. Thou shalt or wilt have loved. 2. You shall or will have loved. 

3. He shall or will have loved. 3. They shall or will have loved. 



POTENTIAL MODE. 



Present tense. Sign — may, can or must. 

Plural. 

1. We may love. 

2. You may love. 

3. They may love. 



1. I may love. 

2. Thou mayst love. 

3. He may love. 



Imperfect tense. Sign — might, could, would or shoidd. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I might love. 1. We might love. 

2. Thou mightst love. 2. You might love. 

3. He might love. 3. They might love. 



100 ETYMOLOGY. [§ XXXI 

Perfect tense. Sign — may, can or must have. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I may have loved. 1. We may have loved. 

2. Thou mayst have loved. 2. You may have loved. 

3. He may have loved. 3. They may have loved. 

Pluperfect tense. Sign — - might, could, ivould, or should have. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I might have loved. 1. We might have loved, 

2. Thou mightst have loved. 2. You might have loved. 

3. He might have loved. 3. They might have loved. 





IMPERATIVE 


MODE. 








Singular. 






Plural. 








Love or love thou. 






Love or love ; 


^ou. 






SUBJUNCTIVE 


MODE. 










Present tense. 










Singular. 






Plural. 






1. 


If I love or may 1 


love. 


1. 


If we love or may 


love. 


2. 


If thou lovest, &c. 




2. 


If you love, 


&c. 




3. 


If he loves, &c. 


Or thus 


3. 


If they love, 


&c. 




1. 


If I love. 




1. 


If we love. 






2. 


If thou love. 




2. 


If you love. 






3. 


If he love. 




3. 


If they love, 


&e. 




Note. — Conjugate the remaining forms like the corresponding 
the indicative, except as mentioned before. 


tenses of 



Section XXXI. 

PROGRESSIVE FORM. 

831. A verb in this form is conjugated by annexing the 
present participle to the different forms of the verb Be. 

EXAMPLE. 
INDICATIVE MODE. 

Present tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I am, 1 1. We are, "j 

2. Thou art, > loving. 2. You are, > loving. 
8. He is ? J 3. They are, J 



§ XXXI.] THE VERB — PASSIVE FORM. 101 

Imperfect tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I was, 1. We were, ] 

2. Thou wast, > loving. 2. You were, > loving. 

3. He was, J 3. They were, J 

So with the other modes and tenses, which the learner may be required to 
repeat. 

PASSIVE VOICE. 

332. A verb in the passive voice is conjugated by annexing 
the perfect participle to the different forms of the verb Be, 

EXAMPLE. 

INDICATIVE MODE. 

Present tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I am, 1. We are, "] 

2. Thou art, )- loved. 2. You are, y loved. 

3. He is, J 3. They are, J 

Imperfect tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I was, "] 1. We were, "1 

2. Thou wast, y loved. 2. You were, f loved. 

3. He was, J 3. They were, J 
The other forms may be recited in a similar manner. 

INTERROGATIVE FORM. 

333. A verb is conjugated interrogatively by placing the 
subject nominative after the verb, or the first auxiliary to it, 
(when there is more than one,) in the different tenses of the 
indicative and potential modes. 

EXAMPLES. 

INDICATIVE MODE. 

Present tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. Am I ? 1. Are we ? 

2. Art thou ? 2. Are you ? 
8. Is he? 3. Are they? 

9* 



102 





ETYMOLOGY. 


L 


1. 

2. 
3. 


Singular. 
Do I love V 
Do you love ? 
Does he love ? 


1. 
2. 
3. 


Plural. 
Do we love ? 
Do you love ? 
Do they love ? 


1. 

2. 
3. 


Imperfect \ 
Singular. 
Was I? 
Wast thou ? 
Was he ? 


tense. 

1. 
2. 
3. 


Plural. 
Were we ? 
W ere you ? 
Were they ? 


1. 

2o 
3. 


Singular. 
Did I love ? 
Didst thou love ? 
Did he love ? 


1. 
2. 
3. 


Plural. 
Did we love ? 
Did you love ? 
Did they love ? 




POTENTIAL 


MODE. 


1. 
2. 
3. 


Singular. 
Can I be ? 
Canst thou be ? 
Can he be ? 


1. 
2. 
3. 


Plural. 
Can we be ? 
Can you be ? 
Can they be ? 


1. 
2. 
3. 


Singular. 
Can I love ? 
Canst thou love ? 
Can he love ? 


1. 
2. 
3. 


Plural. 
Can we love ? 
Can you love ? 
Can they love ? 



[§ XXXI. 



EMPHATIC FORM. 

334 In addition to the ordinary forms of the present and 
imperfect tenses of the indicative and subjunctive modes, there 
is another, called the Hhnphatic form, made by placing do or did 
before the principal verb. 

example. 



INDICATIVE MODE. . 




Present 


tense, 




Singular. 






Plural. 


1. I do love. 






1. We do love. 


2. Thou dost love. 






2. You do love. 


S. He does love. 






3. They do love. 



§ XXXII.] THE VERB. —TENSES. 103 

Imperfect tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I did love. 1. We did love. 

2. Thou didst love. 2. You did love. 

3. He did love. 3. They did love. 

EXERCISE. 

The verbs used in this exercise are conjugated like the verb love. The 
learner is desired to tell the mode, tense, number, and person of each, and also 
its form and agreement. 

I have labored. He has proved. He created. They com- 
manded. We have commanded. It will rain. It has rained. 
The children mocked. The soldiers were marching, (Progres- 
sive form.) It was raining. We were hoping. The time is 
approaching. I have been listening. Were you listening ? 
(Interrogative form.) Was he learning ? Did he learn ? Do 
you believe ? Can you walk ? We will walk. We shall be 
walking. Shall we walk ? The world was created, (Passive 
form.) The world has been created. The soldiers were com- 
manded. They will be commanded. The work will be accom- 
plished. The work might be accomplished. They might 
accomplish the work. I do believe, (Emphatic form.) We 
do affirm. They did maintain. 

To be written on the Board or Slate, 
Write the common forms of the verb love, in the indicative 
mode. — The progressive forms. — The passive forms. — The in- 
terrogative forms. Write the common forms of the verb love, 
in the potential mode. — Progressive forms. — Passive forms. — 
Interrogative forms. Write all the forms of the Imperative 
mode — of the Infinitive mode — of the Participles — of the 
Subjunctive mode. 

Section XXXII. 

IRREGULAR VERBS. 

335. Irregular verbs are those which do not form their im- 
perfect tense and perfect participle by the addition of ed or d 
to the present ; as, go, went, gone. 



104 



ETYMOLOGY. 



XXXII. 



A LIST OF IRREGULAR VERBS. 



Those verbs in the list that have their 
pie designated by i2, have both a regular 



imperfect tense and perfect partici 
and an irregular form. 



Present 




Imperfect. 


Per/. Part. 


Abide 




abode 


abode 


Am 




was 


been 


Arise 




arose 


arisen 


Awake 




awoke, R. 


awaked 


Bear, to 


bring forth 


, bare 


born 


Bear, to 


carry, 


bore ^ 


borne 


Beat 




beat 


beat, beaten 


Begin 




began 


begun 


Bend 




bent 


bent 


Bereave 




bereft, R. 


bereft, R. 


Beseech 




besought 


besought 


Bid 




bid, bade 


bid, bidden 


Bind 




bound 


bound 


Bite 




bit 


bitten, bit 


Bleed 




bled 


bled 


Blow 




blew 


blown 


Break 




broke 


broken, broke 


Breed 




bred 


bred 


Bring 




brought 


brought 


Build 




built 


built 


Burst 




burst 


burst 


Buy 




bought 


bought 


Cast 




cast 


east 


Catch 




caught, R. 


caught, R. 


Chide 




chid 


chidden, chid 


Choose 




chose 


chosen 


Cleave* 








Cleave, to split 


clove or cleft 


cloven, cleft 


Cling 




clung 


clung 


Clothe 




clothed 


clad, r. 


Come 




came 


come 


Cost 




cost 


cost 


Creep 




crept 


crept 


Crow 




crew, r. 


crowed 


*— — — ' 


* 


Cleave, to adhere, 


is regular. 



§ XXXII.] 



IRREGULAR VERBS. 



105 



Present 


Imperfect 


Per/. Part 


Cut 


cut 


cut 


Dare,* to venture 


durst 


dared 


Deal 


dealt, r. 


dealt, R. 


Dig 


dug, R. 


dug, R. 


Do 


did 


done 


Draw 


drew 


drawn 


Drink 


drank 


drank f 


Drive 


drove 


driven 


Dwell 


dwelt, r. 


dwelt, r. 


Eat 


ate 


eaten, eat 


Fall 


fell 


fallen 


Feed 


fed 


fed 


Feel 


felt 


felt 


Fight 


fought 


fought 


Find 


found 


found 


Flee 


fled 


fled 


Fling 


flung 


flung 


Fly, as a bird 


flew 


flown 


Forget 


forgot 


forgotten, forgot 


Forsake 


forsook 


forsaken 


Freeze 


froze 


frozen 


Get 


got 


got 


Gild 


gilt, R. 


gilt, r. 


Gird 


girt, R. 


girt, r. 


Give 


gave 


given 


Go 


went 


gone 


Grave 


graved 


graven, r. 


Grind 


ground 


ground 


Grow 


grew 


grown 


Hang 


hung, r. 


hung, r. 


Have 


had 


had 


Hear 


heard 


heard 


Hew 


hewed 


hewn, r. 


Hide 


hid 


hidden, hid 


Hit 


hit 


hit 


Hold 


held 


held 


Hurt 


hurt 


*hurt 



* Dare, tochaUwge> is regular, f Drmk is used chiefly as an adjective. 



06 


ETYMOLOGY. 


- 


Present. 


Imperfect. 


Perf. Part. 


Keep 


kept 


kept 


Knit 


knit, r. 


knit, R. 


Know 


knew 


known 


Lade 


laded 


laden 


Lay 


laid 


laid 


Lead 


led 


led 


Leave 


left 


left 


Lend 


lent 


lent 


Let 


let 


let 


Lie, to lie down 


lay 


lain 


Load 


loaded 


laden, r, 


Lose 


lost 


lost 


Make 


made 


made 


Meet 


met 


met 


Mow 


mowed 


mown, r. 


Pay 


paid 


paid 


Put 


put 


put 


Eead 


read 


read 


Eend 


rent 


rent 


Eid 


rid 


rid, ridden 


Eide 


rode 


rode 


Eing 


rung, rang 


rung 


Eise 


rose 


risen 


Eive 


rived 


riven, r. 


Eun 


ran 


run 


Saw 


sawed 


sawn, r. 


Say 


said 


said 


See 


saw 


seen 


Seek 


sought 


sought 


Sell 


sold 


sold 


Send 


sent 


sent 


Set 


set 


set 


Shake 


shook 


shaken 


Shape 


shaped 


shapen, r. 


Shave 


shaved 


shaven, r. 


Shear 


sheared 


shorn 


Shed 


shed 


shed 


Shine 


shone, r. 


shone, r. 



[§ XXXII. 



§ XXXII.] 



IRREGULAR VERBS. 



107 



Present. 


Imperfect. 


Per/. Part. 


Shoot 


shot 


shot 


Sweat 


sweat, r. 


sweat, r. 


Show* 


showed 


shown 


Shred 


shred 


shred 


Shrink 


shrunk 


shrunk 


Shut 


shut 


shut 


Sing 


sung, sang 


sung 


Sink 


sunk, sank 


sunk 


Sit 


sat 


sat 


Slay 


slew 


slain 


Sleep 


slept 


slept 


Slide 


slid 


slidden 


Sling 


slung 


slung 


Slink 


slunk 


slunk 


Slit 


slit, R. 


slit, R. 


Smite 


smote 


smitten 


Sow 


sowed 


sown, R. 


Speak 


spoke 


spoken, spoke 


Speed 


sped 


sped 


Spend 


spent 


spent 


Spill 


spilt, R. 


spilt, R. 


Spin 


spun 


spun 


Spit 


spit, spat 


spit 


Split 


split 


split 


Spread 


spread 


spread 


Spring 


sprung, sprang 


sprung 


Stand 


stood 


stood 


Steal 


stole 


stolen 


Stick 


stuck 


stuck 


Sting 


stung 


stung 


Stink 


stunk 


stunk 


Stride 


strode or strid 


stridden 


Strike 


struck 


struck or stricken 


String 


strung 


strung 


Strive 


strove 


striven 


Strow or strew 


strowed or strewed 


f strown, strowed, 
\ strewed 



* This verb is sometimes written shew, shewed, shewn. 



108 ETYMOLOGY. [§ XXXII. 

Present. 

Shoe 

Swear 

Swell 

Swim 

Swing 

Take 

Teach 

Tear 

Tell 

Think 

Thrive 

Throw 

Thrust 

Tread 

Wax 

Wear 

Weave 

Weep 

Win 

Wind 

Work 

Wring 

Write 

Note. 1. — The forms sang, swang, spake, sprang, forgot, spat, gat, brake, tf c, 
are now obsolete, or nearly so. 

Note 2. — Many words which were used in the days of Shakspeare and 
Bacon, are now laid aside ; others are used only in books, while others are 
obsolescent, being occasionally used ; and a few of the old participles having 
lost their verbal character are used only as attributes, as, fraught, drunken, 
molten, beholden, shorn, bounden, cloven. Holden, swollen, gotten, are nearly ob- 
solete in common parlance. — Webster. 

Note 3. — Such verbs as are irregular only in familiar discourse, and which 
are improperly terminated by t instead of ed, as, spelt, &c, are not inserted 
in the table. Some contractions of ed into t, however, are unexceptionable ; 
and others, the only established forms of expression, as crept, dwelt, gilt, &c. 
— Murray. 

EXERCISE. 

Sentences to be corrected in which the irregular verb is improperly used. 

The horses drawed the carriage. The timber was drawed 
a great distance. The horses were drove too fast. Does a 
glutton know when he has ate enough ? The birds have flew 



ETYMOLOGY. 




Imperfect. 


Perf Part. 


shod 


shod 


swore 


sworn 


swelled 


swollen, r. 


swam, swum 


swum 


swung 


swung 


took 


taken 


taught 


taught 


tore 


torn 


told 


told 


thought 


thought 


throve, R. 


thriven, R. 


threw 


thrown 


thrust 


thrust 


trod 


trod, trodden 


waxed 


waxen, r. 


wore 


worn 


wove 


woven, wove 


wept 


wept 


won 


won 


wound 


wound 


wrought, R. 


wrought, R. 


wrung 


wrung 


wrote 


written 



§ XXXIII.] FORMATION OF TENSES. 109 

away. The stream lias froze over. A stone laid in the street. 
It has laid there a month. The old man has laid down his 
burden. He lay down his book and walked to the door. 

They have wrote to-day. The bell has just rang. The 
meeting has began. I begun my work yesterday. She sang* 
a song. They have set there until they are weary. I sat the 
instrument down at your door. The sun sat in a cloud last 
evening. I saw him setting by the wayside. A tree was lay- 
ing across the street. They done their work faithfully. He 
has mistook the way. His garments are nearly wore out. The 
coach was drawed by four elegant horses. My watch was stole 
last night. The tempest blowed the ship ashore. 

The wind blowed violently last evening. The chaff has 
blowed away. The building was blowed up. The rioters 
throwed stones. The ball was throwed dexterously. The 
sailor throwed away his money. The leaves w r ere shook from 
the tree. The blossoms have fell to the ground. The leaves are 
tore out. Have you tore your book ? The letter was so badly 
wrote that I read it with difficulty. Have you wrote to-day ? 

Section XXXIII. 
Formation of Tenses. 

INDICATIVE MODE. 

Note. — The directions below have reference to the first person singular of 
each tense. 

1. The first person singular of the Present tense, is the root of the verb ; as, 
"I command." 

2. The Imperfect tense is formed from the present in regular verbs, by add 
ing ed to the present. Silent e is dropped when the verb ends with that letter, 
before adding the ed. In irregular verbs the imperfect can be learned from 
the list of irregular verbs. 

3. The Perfect tense is formed by placing the auxiliary have, before the 
perfect participle : as, " I have loved. I have gone." 

4. The Pluperfect tense is formed by placing had before the perfect partici- 
ple. 

* Sang, according to Webster, is obsolete. 



110 ETYMOLOGY. [§ XXXIII. 

5. The First Future tense is formed by placing shall or will before the^res- 
ent or root ; as, " I shall or will command. " 

6. The Second Future tense is formed by placing shall have before the per 
feet participle ; as, "I shall have gone." 

Note. — Shall have or will have may be placed before the participle in second 
and third persons of this tense. 

THE POTENTIAL, INFINITIVE AND PARTICIPLES. 

1. The Present tense is formed by placing ma?/, can or must, before the 
present ; as, " I may or can go." 

2. The Imperfect tense is formed by placing might, could, would or should be- 
fore the present ; as, "I might go." 

3. The Perfect tense is formed by placing may have, can have, or must have 
before the perfect participle ; as, " I may, can, or must have read." 

4. The Pluperfect tense is formed by placing might, could, would or should 
have, before the perfect participle; as, " I might, <$-c, have loved." 

5. The Present tense of the Infinitive mode has to before the root ; as, " To 
love." 

6. The Perfect tense of the Infinitive mode has to have before the perfect 
participle ; as, " To have read." 

7. The Present participle ends in ing. 

8. The Perfect participle of regular verbs ends in ed. 

9. The Perfect participle of irregular verbs may be found in the list of 
irregular verbs. 

10. The Compound participle is formed of the present participle having, and 
a perfect participle. 

11. The tenses of the Subjunctive mode are formed like the tenses of the In 
dicative and Potential, with the signs if, unless, admit, grant, §c, prefixed. 

12. The Imperative mode is the simple form of the verb, and its subject 
nominative is generally omitted ; as, Go, do, see ; thou or you is omitted. 

DEFECTIVE VERBS. 

336. A Defective Yerb is one which wants some of the 
modes or tenses. The following are verbs that belong to this 
class : 

1. The auxiliary verbs can, shall, may, have two forms only, present and^ostf ; 
as, can, could, #c. 

2. Ought is defective, and is used in one form only. " Had ought or could 
ought" is improper. 

3. Quoth is defective, and usually stands before its nominative ; as, " Quoth 
he." Beware is defective, and is used chiefly in the imperative and infinitive 
modes; but occasionally in the future indicative and the imperative potential. 

4. To wit, " To know," is now used only in the infinitive, in the sense of 
• namely," or " that is to say." 



§ XXXIV ] THE VERB IMPERSONAL. Ill 



IMPERSONAL VERBS. 



337. An Impersonal Verb is one which is used only in the 
form of the third person singular, with the pronoun it ; as, " It 
rains" " It thunders" u It hails" 



Section XXXIV. 

ANALYSIS AND PARSING. 

In the exercises that follow, the learner should give particular attention to 
the parsing of the verbs, after carefully analyzing each sentence. 

EXERCISE I. 
INDICATIVE MODE. 

Victory perches upon our banner — our arms triumphed, and 
the enemy suffered severely. 

We have compared the vast relics of decayed and moulder- 
ing literature to animal and vegetable remains. 

He has been diligent. He will probably succeed. 

Did you see the beautiful rainbow after the shower to-day ? 

They have resolved, examined their hearts, and made new 
plans. 

His words of this day are planted in my memory, and will 
there remain till the last pulsation of my heart. 

I shall see his face and hear his voice no more. 

EXERCISE II. 
POTENTIAL MODE. 

It may be expected that I should accompany the resolution 
with some suitable remarks. 

His intercourse with the living world is now ended ; and 
those who* would hereafter find him, must seek him in his 
grave. 

Thou canst do every thing. No thought can be withholden 
from thee. 

* " Who " is a relative pronoun, and the subject of would jind. " Those n 
is the subject of must seek. 



112 ETYMOLOGY. [§ XXXIV, 

To meet death as becomes a man, is a privilege bestowed on 
few. I would endeavor to make it mine. 

We might have succeeded in our undertaking. 

EXERCISE III. 
IMPERATIVE MODE. 

Incline my heart unto thy testimonies. 

Keep my commandments and live. Bind them upon thy 
fingers, write them upon the table of thine heart. 

Hear instruction, and be wise and refuse it not. 

And Reuben said unto them, Shed no blood, but cast him 
into this pit and lay no hand on him. 

EXERCISE IV. 
INFINITIVE MODE. 

Rule XII. 
338. The Infinitive mode is generally used to limit a 

verb, noun, or adjective. 

Model 

Sentence. — The scholar loves to study. 

Analyzed. — " Scholar " is the subject. " Loves " is the predicate, modified 
or limited by the verb to study in the Infinitive. 

The Infinitive parsed. — " To study" is a verb, in the infinitive mode, and 
limits the verb loves. Eule. 

SENTENCES. 

Birds love to sing. The youth tries to learn. The man has 
a desire to hear. Learn to obey. He may hope to succeed. 
It is kind to forbear. It is pleasant to hear the sweet music of 
birds. 

Ask the hero, ask the statesman, whose * wisdom you have 
been accustomed to revere, and he will tell you. 

The rain began to patter down in broad and scattered drops. 

Influenced by a desire to stamp on these expressions their 
merited disgrace, and to preserve dignity and decorum in our 
deliberations, I felt it my duty to call the gentleman to order. 

# " Whose " is a relative pronoun in the possessive case and limits wisdom. 



5 XXXV.] ADJECTIVES — CLASSES. 113 

Section XXXV. 
ADJECTIVES. 

339. Adjectives are divided into two general classes, de« 
scriptive and definitive. (108, 109, 110.) 

DESCRIPTIVE ADJECTIVES. 

340. A Descriptive Adjective is one that expresses a 
quality of an object ; as, "A white rose." "Glass is brittle" 

Those derived from proper nouns are called Proper 
Adjectives ; as, American, English. 

341. Those derived from verbs, having the form of partici- 
ples, are called Verbal Adjectives ; as, " Enduring friendship." 
" A bereaved parent." 

342. An adjective used in the predicate with the verb to 
complete an affirmation, is called a Predicate Adjective ; as, 
" The sea is rough." " He is esteemed wise" 

343. An adjective used to modify the meaning of a verb and its subject, is 
called an Adverbial Adjective ; as, "The moon looks pale." The adjective 
"pale" describes "moon" and at the same time modifies "looks.;" that is, 
it does the office of both an adverb and an adjective, and may properly be 
termed an Adverbial Adjective. 

344. An adjective preceded by the article "the " is often used as a plural 
noun ; as, " The wise; the good; the great." 

ANALYSIS AND PARSING. 

Particular attention should be given to the different classes of adjectives. 

The office of a great general does not differ widely from the 
office of a great mechanician. 

The Christian benevolence of a private American association 
casts its eye upon them. 

The closing hour has passed ; a monarch lies in his lonely 
state. 

In the deadly strife of European ambition, the arms of civili- 
zation acquired irresistible preponderance. 

Gentle eyes grew sorrowful and dim. 

The bells sounded soft and pensive. 

Magnesia feels smooth ; calcareous earths feel dry. 
10* 



114 ETYMOLOGY. [§ XXXV. 



DEFINITIVE ADJECTIVES. 

845. Definitive Adjectives are such as define or limit the 
meaning of nouns and pronouns. (112.) 

This class includes Articles, Numerals, and the Pronomi- 
nal adjectives. 

346. An or a, and the, are called articles. They are placed 

before nouns which they define, and may be properly termed 

definitive adjectives. 

Note 1. — An stands before words beginning with a vowel sound. A stands 
before words beginning with a consonant sound; " A bird," " a use," " a yew 
tree." 

Note 2. — A is used before words beginning with vowels which can be 
sounded only with the assistance of the consonants y or w ; as, A [y] union, a 
eulogy. 

Note 3. — An is used before words beginning with h and accented on the 
second syllable ; as, " An historical poem " "An heroic act " and before words 
beginning with a silent h ; as, " An honor." 

347. An from the Saxon an, ane, and our word one, are the same. By cus 
torn "one" is used in numbering, while "an" is employed as a definitive 
adjective to denote an individual, either definitely or indefinitely. 

348. When used definitely, " an " or "a" designates an individual object 
as known, certain or specified ; as, " I hear a sound ; " "I see an elephant ; " "it 
weighs an ounce ; " that is, one ounce. 

349. When used indefinitely, "an" or "a" denotes some individual of a 
class or species, but does not specify any particular one ; as, "A kingdom for a 
horse ; " "a " specifies no particular kingdom or horse, although it denotes but 
one of each kind. 

350. The definitive "the" is used before specific individuals or classes of 
objects, as distinguished from others of the same kind ; as, " The laws of mo- 
rality ; " " the hope of the Christian ; " " the sun ;" " the earth." 

It is also used in the singular number to denote the whole species or 
an indefinite number ; as, " TJie almond tree shall flourish." 
" The " is also used indefinitely; as, " Give sorrow to the winds." 

EXERCISE. 

Let the following expressions be corrected ; and let the reason be given in 
each instance for the correction made. 

The clock is a hour and an half too fast. A honest man sold 

me a ox. A Indian is a hard master. Such an one can be a 

upright judge. A early pear will keep but an short time. A 



§XXXV.] PRONOMINAL ADJECTIVES. 115 

old coat is an useless garment. A idle man stole an horse from 
a honest one. A ounce of prevention is worth an hundred 
pounds of cure. 

351. Numeral Adjectives are such as denote number; as, 
one , twOjjirst, second. 

PRONOMINAL ADJECTIVES. 

352. Those definitives which are sometimes used as ad- 
jectives and sometimes as pronouns, are called Pronominal Ad- 
jectives. 

353. They are this, that, these, those, (demonstratives ;) each, either, neither, 
(distributives) ; some, any, one, all, such, (indefinites ;) other, another, none, much, 
many, few, both, same, several, former, latter. One and other are thus declined. 

Singular. Plural 

Norn. One, Other, Others. 

Poss. One's, Other's, Others'. 

Obj. One. Other. Others. 

Note. — In parsing, an or a and the may fee called articles, and the defini- 
tives, this, that, <fc., may be called adjectives when they stand before nouns ; 
and pronouns when they stand alone. 

ANALYSIS AND PARSING. 

Model. 
Sentence. — This is true charity. 
Analyzed. " This " is the subject ; " is true charity " is the modified predi- 
cate. 

The pronominal adjective parsed. "This" is a pronominal adjective used 
without a noun. It is in the nominative case and the subject of " is." 

This day will be remembered. That event has been recorded. 
One * is apt to love one's self. Some were wise, others were 
foolish. He pleases some ; he disgusts others. Much labor has 
been bestowed. Many hours have been wasted. A few days 
will determine his destiny. Others may boast ; I will be silent. 
All must die ; none can escape. A thousand soldiers were en- 
camped. 

* The noun, after most of the Pronominal adjectives used alone, can be 
easily supplied ; as, Some, that is, some persons. Others however, in the plural, 
is strictly a pronoun, as it cannot be used before a noun either expressed or 
understood. 



116 ETYMOLOGY. [§ XXXVI. 

COMPOSITION. 

1. Connect two descriptive adjectives with each of the following nouns. 

Model. 

days. glass. sea. 

Bleak cold days. Clear smooth glass. Bark blue sea. 

NOUNS. 

Sky, cloud, sun, tempest, mountain, lake, wood, river, valley, 
island, shore, cliff, beach, sand, waves, forests, fields, cloud, eye, 
gardens, roses. 

2. Connect three descriptive adjectives with each of the following nouns. 

Model 

A pebble. A Frenchman. 

A white, smooth, round pebble. A tall, handsome, active Frenchman. 

NOUNS. 

1. Cat, dog, wolf, fox, horse, butterfly. 

2. American; Indian, Englishman. 
S. Rose, tree, poppy, lily, flower. 

4. Serpent, viper, snake, frog, lizard. 

Section XXXVI. 

COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES. 

354. The quality in one object is often spoken of in com- 
parison with the same quality in itself, or in some other 
object. 

EXAMPLES. 

The same quality in three different objects may be compared as follows : 

Iron is hard ; hardness is a quality in iron. 

Steel is harder than iron ; hardness is a quality in steel, but this quality ex- 
ists in a higher degree in steel than in iron. 

Diamond is the hardest of the three ; hardness is a quality in diamond, but 
this quality exists in a higher degree than it does either in iron or steel. 

The same quality in three different persons may be compared as follows. 

A wise man ; a wiser man than he ; the wisest man of the three, or of all. 

A good man ; a better man than he ; the best man of the three, or of all. 



§ XXXVI.] COMPARATIVE ADJECTIVES. 117 

A great man ; a greater man than he ; the greatest man of the three, or 
of all. 

The boy was mischievous at home, more mischievous at school, but the most 
mischievous at church. 

355. Comparison is the variation of an adjective to de- 
note the same quality in different degrees. 

356. There are three principal degrees of comparison, 
called the positive, the comparative, and the superlative. 

357. The positive denotes the simple quality, without 
specifying the degree of it ; as, Mild, great. 

358. The comparative denotes a higher state of the same 
quality than the positive ; as, Milder, greater. 

359. The superlative denotes a higher or lower state of 
the same quality than that expressed by the comparative ; 
as, Mildest, greatest. 

REGULAR COMPARISON, 

360. Adjectives of one syllable are commonly compared by 
annexing to the positive, er for the comparative, and est for the 
superlative. 

361. When the positive ends in silent e, it drops the e on re- 
ceiving the endings er and est. 

362. The final consonant of certain adjectives is doubled be- 
fore receiving the er or est ; as, Fit, fitter, fittest ; hot, hotter, 
hotted. 

363. Some adjectives of two syllables are compared with er 
and est when they can be easily pronounced ; as, Lofty, loftier, 
loftiest ; handsome, handsomer, handsomest 

364. When an adjective ends in y after a consonant, this 
letter is dropped, and i is added before er and est ; as, Happy, 
happier, happiest 

365. Adjectives of more than one syllable are generally com- 
pared by means of the adverbs more and most, or less and least ; 



118 



ETYMOLOGY. 



[§ XXXVI. 



as, Skilful, more skilful, most skilful; learned, more or less 
learned ; most or least learned. 

366. An imperfect degree is expressed by the ending ish ; 
as, ~Blue-ish, d&rk-ish. 

IRREGULAR COMPARISON. 

367. The following adjectives are irregular in their comparison. 



Pos. 


Com. 


Sup. 


Pos. 


Com. 


Sup. 


Good, 


better, 


best. 


Fore, 


former, 


foremost, or first. 


Bad, or ill, 


worse, 


worst. 


Old,* 


elder, 


eldest. 


Little, 


less, 


least. 


Late, 


later, 


latest, or last. 


Much, 


more, 


most. 


Far, 


farther, 


farthest. 


Many, 


more, 


most. 


Near, 


nearer, 


nearest, or next. 



368. Some words add most to form the superlative ; as, Hind, 
hinder-most ; in, inner, inner-most ; up, upper, wpner-most, &c. 

369. Adjectives which express qualities that cannot be in- 
creased or diminished, do not admit of comparison ; as, Square, 
spherical, triangular, &c. 

370. Various degrees of comparison are expressed by means 
of adverbs, adjuncts, and by emphasis ; as, Very sick, exceed- 
ingly great, in the highest degree censurable. 

EXERCISE. 
Give the comparative and superlative. 
High. Grateful. Good. 111. 

Low. Unmindful. Little. Generous. 

Small. Cheerful. Happy. Penurious. 

Great. Attractive. Lofty. Extravagant. 

Note. — The word more should never be prefixed to the comparative 
degree of an adjective ; nor the word most to the superlative degree. Double 
comparatives and double superlatives should be carefully avoided. 

EXAMPLES TO BE CORRECTED. 

Who was a more wiser man than Solomon ? It was the 
beautifulest sight I ever saw. A more honester man you can- 

* Thus compared only when applied to persons. The regular form old, 
older, oldest^ is applied either to persons or things. 



§ -XXXVII J ADJECTIVES — COMPARISON. 119 

not find. My master is more kinder than my mistress. Summer 
is the delightfulest season of the year. The pine is more tall 
than the cedar. The good are more happy than the bad. 
Socrates was much more wiser than Alcibiades. Have you 
seen a rounder ball than this ? The book is more square than 
the block. 

REVIEW. 

1. Into what two general classes may adjectives be divided ? 

2. What are descriptive adjectives ? Proper adjectives ? Participial ad 
jectives ? Give examples of each. 

3. What are definitive adjectives ? What does this class include ? 

4. Name the articles. What is the difference between an and a ? 

5. What are pronominal adjectives ? Name them. 

6. Define comparison. How many states ? 

7. What does the positive denote ? The comparative ? The superlative ? 

Section XXXVII. 
EELATIVE PRONOUNS. 

371. A Relative Pronoun is one that refers to a preced- 
ing noun or pronoun, which is called the antecedent* 

EXAMPLES. 

The man who is happy; "who" is the relative; it refers to man; man is 
the antecedent. 

The sight which I saw ; " which " is the relative ; " sight " is the antecedent. 
The people who are assembled ; point out the relative and the antecedent. 

372. The relative pronouns are wTio, which and that; who 
refers to persons or to things personified. Which\ refers to 
irrational animals or things. That refers to persons, ani- 
mals or things. 

DECLENSION OF THE RELATIVES. 

Singular and Plural, 

Mm. Who Which That 

Poss. Whose Whose 

Obj. Whom Which That 



* Antecedent signifies " going before," or "preceding." 
Sometimes, especially in poetry, the natural order of the words is changed, 
and the relative refers to a noun or pronoun following it. 
f Which in ancient writings sometimes refers to persons. 



120 ETYMOLOGY. [§ XXXVII. 

373. The relatives who and which, when used in asking ques- 
tions, are called interrogatives. 

374. The noun to which the interrogative refers is found in 
the answer to the question ; as, Who did this ? Ans. James ; 
that is, it was James who, &c. 

EXERCISE. 

Fill the blanks with relatives. 

Note. — The objective case of the relative generally stands before the tran- 
sitive verb which governs it, and after the preposition. 

The people — we saw. 

The king — commanded, was obeyed. 

The birds — fly in the air. 

The man — has no music in himself. 

The events — are passing. 

EXAMPLES TO BE CORRECTED. 

The bird whom I caught has escaped. The friend which I 
loved is gone. There were some cities who aspired for liberty. 

The rose whom we saw has faded. The son in which my 
hopes were placed was lost at sea. 

PARSING.* 

Rule XIII. 

375. The relative pronoun agrees with its antecedent in 
gender, number, and person. 

Note 1. — The relative in the different cases is parsed like other pronouns. 

Parse the relatives. 

The master who taught us will be gratefully remembered. 
The trees which were planted grow thriftily. 



* As the relative is a connective, the sentences in which it occurs cannot be 
properly analyzed until compound sentences have been explained. 



§ XXXVII.] 



RELATIVE PRONOUNS. 



121 



He, who preserves me, to whom* I owe my being, whose I 
am, and whomf I serve, is eternal. 

The city which Romulus built is called Rome. 

The boy who reads good books will become intelligent. 

The letter which I have received, contains good news. 

The rose which we saw is fading. 

The tree that we passed has withered. 

Whose book is this, which you gave me ? 



COMPOUND PRONOUNS. 

376. The word self is often added to the personal pro- 
nouns Mm, her, my, thy, it, to express emphasis ; as. Him- 
self, \iself, &c. 



Second person. 


Third person. 


Thyself. 


Itself 


Plural. 




Yourselves. 


Themselves. 



Singular. 
First person. 
Norn, and Obj. Myself 

Nom. and Olj. Ourselves. 

Self (plural selves) is used ak>ne as a noun. When prefixed to other words 
it makes a part of a compound adjective ; as, Self-complacent, self-taught. 

377. What is a compound relative including both the 
antecedent and the relative. 

In the singular it represents that which, and in the plural 
those vjhich, or the things which. 

EXAMPLES. 

I heard what you said ; that is, that which you said. 

I know what will please you ; that is, the things which, &c, 

378. " What" is sometimes used to represent an entire clause ; as, "I tell 
thee what, corporal, I could tear her." " What " represents the whole clause, 
u I could tear her," which is in apposition with it. 

^ Wliom is governed by the preposition to, 

t Wliom is in the objective case and governed by serve. 

n 



122 ETYMOLOGY. [§ XXXVIL 

879. " What " is often used as a definitive adjective ; as, "It is unknown in 
what character he appeared." What is an adjective limiting the meaning of 
character. 

380. " What," is much used in asking questions ; as, " What art thou ? " 
" What will you do V " In the first sentence, what is the predicate nominative. 
In the second, what is in the objective case, and limits do. " You will do what f " 

381. " What " is sometimes used in poetry, before a noun in the sense 
of the ; as, " What time the morn mysterious visions bring ; " that is, the 
time. 

882. " What " is likewise sometimes used elliptically, with though, or if, 
and also in exclamations ; as, " What though, in solemn silence ; " that is, 
what imports it, though f " What ! could ye not watch with me one hour ? " 
that is, what is this ? or what means this ? 

383. Whoever, whosoever, whatever, and whatsoever, are com- 
pound words, used instead of two pronouns ; as, " Whoever 
dreads punishment, deserves it ; " that is, he who dreads, &c. 

384. Whatever, whatsoever, whichever, and whichsoever, are 
often used as adjectives ; as, " Whatever measure." 

.» 

EXERCISE IN PARSING. 

Model of Parsing what. 

Sentence. — I have heard what has been alleged. 

" What " is a compound relative, and is used in the sense of that which. 
"That" is in the objective case, and is the object of heard. " Which" is 
in the nominative case, and is the subject of '• has been alleged." . 

Parse what in the following sentences. 

I have done what you commanded. 

You will know what I have said. 

What you have said, is true. 

They are informed of what you did on the last night. 

They know what is right. 

It is not material tvhat names are assigned them. 
What consequence will follow the adoption of this measure ? 
What news have you heard to-day ? 



§ XXXVIII. ] ADVERBS COMPARISON. 123 



Section XXXVIII. 

ADVERBS. 

Mention the office of different kinds of adverbs. (See 136 — 45.) 

385. Most adverbs are used to express the same meaning as might be ex- 
pressed by a combination of other words; as, "He acted wisely" i. e., he 
acted with wisdom; " he stopped here," i. e., in this place ; " when shall I see 
you?" i. e., at what time shall I see you? "he visits me of ten," i. e.,many 
times. u Whence art thou ? " i. e., from what place ; " Where are you ? " i. e., 
in what place. 

386. An adverbial phrase is often formed by a union of some 
other parts of speech ; as, "By and by ; in truth ; by far." 

387. Adverbs may be divided into various classes ; as, Ad- 
verbs of manner ; of time ; of place ; of assent, denial, or 
doubt ; of comparison and quality ; of interrogation ; of quan- 
tity, &c. 

COMPARISON. 

388. Adverbs ending in ly are commonly compared by more 
and most, or less and least : as Justly, (pos.) more justly, (comp.) 
most justly, (sup.) ; wisely, (pos.) less wisely, (comp.) least 
wisely, (sup.) 

389. A few adverbs add er for the comparative, and est for 
the superlative ; as, soon, sooner, soonest; often, oftener, oitenesL 

390. A few are compared irregularly ; as, 

Little, less, least. 
Much, more, most. 
Badly or ill, worse, worst. 
Far, farther^ farthest. 
Forth, further, furthest. 
Well, better, best. 

Note. — The adverbs in the list, except forth and badly, are adjectives when 
they qualify nouns ; as, A far country ; most men ; it is well ; much money. 



124 ETYMOLOGY. [§ XXXIX. 

ANALYSIS AND PAUSING. 

His features are not a little changed. 

All left the world much as they found it. 

Wisdom alone is truly fair. 

Things most truly are most fitly spoken. 

He pushed his researches very far into antiquities. 

COMPOSITION. 

Note. — Abverbs should be placed near the verbs which they modify. Not 
and never should stand after the auxiliary verbs, may, can, shall, will, might, do, 
would, should, could, did ; as, " I will never distrust ; " not, " I never will," &c. 

Compose sentences which shall contain the following Adverbs. 



Anxiously. 


Much. 


Often. 


Occasionally. 


Too. 


Sometimes. 


Frequently. 


Very. 


When. 


Immediately. 


Chiefly. 


Until. 



EXAMPLES TO BE CORRECTED. 

Adjectives are sometimes improperly used as adverbs; as, "Henry writes 
careless ; " it should be carelessly. 

He did not conduct proper. He acts foolish. She behaved 
ruder (it should be more rudely ,) than she ought. He acted 
bolder than was expected. I shall never think mean of you. 
James reads distinct, writes neat, and recites correct. Do not 
walk so slow. 



Section XXXIX. 

EXERCISES IN ANALYSIS AND PARSING. 

Note. — These exercises are designed to call the attention of the learner to 
principles already explained. 

EXERCISE I. 

The noun and the verb. The subject and predicate. Simple sentences. 

The king rules. Boys play. Time flies. Caesar command- 
ed. The bird was singing. Trees will grow. The king will 
conquer. The day had arrived. The sun had set. The hands 



§XXXIX.] ADVERB — COMPOSITION. 125 



should labor. Scholars should learn. The Americans might 



have submitted. The king should yield. 



o A 



EXERCISE II. 

Noun. Verb. Adverb. Modified predicate. 

The storm rages violently. The sluggard sleeps soundly. 
The birds were singing sweetly. The time was passing pleas- 
antly. The hour will soon arrive. The ship sailed yesterday. 
The news came to-day. Themistocles could not rest. Friends 
will certainly part. The man will never listen. Perhaps the 
child will recover. Roots grow downward. 

EXERCISE III. 

Adjective. Noun. Verb. Adjunct. Modified Subject. Modified Predi 
cate. Object. 

Cruel war desolates flourishing cities. A kind friend res- 
cued me from danger. The hunter killed a ferocious panther 
in the forest. 

Grapes hang in clusters on the vine. Prosperous gales waft 
the light ship over the sea. Some birds hang their nests on a 
slender twig of the highest branch of a tree. 

EXERCISE IV. 

A simple sentence gradually extended by the use of adjuncts or modifying 
words. 

The storm drove. 

A furious storm drove the ship. 

A furious storm from the north drove the ship violently against 
the rocks. 

The wind blew. 

The gentle wind blew softly. 

The gentle south wind blew softly over the sea. 

Knowledge enlarges. 

A knowledge of the works of nature enlarges the under- 
standing. 

An extensive knowledge of the works of nature enlarges the 
understanding of men, in a variety of ways. 
11* 



126 ETYMOLOGY. [§ XL. 

EXERCISE V. 

Passive form. Interrogative form. 

The debt will undoubtedly be cancelled. 

The village was shaken violently by the earthquake. 

The store was plundered by a gang of robbers. 

No season of life should be spent in idleness. 

Will he be persuaded to go ? Art thou he ? 

May I be permitted to go ? Is the rumor confirmed ? Can 
he succeed in his undertaking ? Whither shall I flee ? How 
could he do the cruel deed ? 

EXERCISE VI. 

The contented mind spreads ease and cheerfulness around it. 

The school of experience teaches many useful lessons. 

The eyes of fishes, compared with those of terrestrial animals, 
exhibit a certain distinctness of structure, adapted to their state 
and element. 

Birds in general, procure their food by means of their beak. 

A nature infinitely wise can hardly be supposed to employ 
itself in vain. 

The spirit of liberty had planted itself deeply among the Vir- 
ginians. 

A foraging party of the colonists, headed by Argall, having 
stolen the daughter of Powhattan, demanded of her father a 
ransom. 



Section XL. 
COMPOSITION. 

EXERCISE I. 

Compose sentences which shall contain in each one the following expressions. 

duty of the inexperienced to 
The traffic in ardent spirits 
Perseverance and industry will 



§ XL.] COMPOSITION. 127 

The advantages of a good education consist 

to your letter which I have lately received 
It would afford me great satisfaction 

in reply to your 

acquainted with 

a delightful morning 
The follies of youth 

in the highest degree valuable. 

EXERCISE II. 

1. Let the parts of the following objects be enumerated. 



A ship. 


A plough. 


A clock. 


A book. 


A chair. 


A carriage. 


A house. 


A tree. 


An ear of corn. 


A table. 


A fence. 


A sleigh. 



2. Mention the uses of the same objects. A composition of several lines 
may be written on each, in describing the various uses, &c. 

EXERCISE III. 
QUALITIES OF OBJECTS. 

Every object admits of an adjective or adjunct, to express its quality or 
condition, its form, size, or comparative excellence : as, A book ; a large book, 
or, the book is large ; a good book, or, the book is useful ; a book abounding 
in excellent sentiments. 

Express some of the qualities or conditions of the following objects by ad- 
jectives or modifying adjuncts. 

An apple. A man. The ocean. 

A tree. A horse. A ship. 

A house. The sun. Gold. 

EXERCISE IY. 

The learner in this exercise may state such ideas and facts, as he can gain 
by reflection or reading on the following subjects. 

EXAMPLE. 

Subject, — Iron. Iron is the most valuable of all metals. Its use to some 
extent was known at a very early period, and has followed the progress of 
civilization in the world. In its natural state it is found in beds of ore, from 
which, by an ingenious process, it is extracted and prepared for use. The 
value of this metal, which abounds in almost every region of the earth, can bo 
estimated only by reflecting upon the uses to which it is applied. 



128 ETYMOLOGY. [§ XL. 

The plough. Glass. Gunpowder. 

A ship. The compass. The Art of Printing, 

Silver. The telescope. Books. 

exercise v. 

In this Exercise let some of the benefits which are derived from the follow 
ing objects and provisions, be specified in writing. 

The ocean. Roads. Rain. 

Rivers. Railroads. Wind. 

Mountains. Steam Engine. Sun. 

EXERCISE VI. 

Expand the following expressions according to the model. 

Model 
I write. 

I write this letter. 

I write this letter to inform you that your son is well. 
I write this letter to inform you that your son is well and in excellent spirits. 
I write this letter to inform you that your son is well and in excellent spirits, 
and is perfectly contented in his new situation. 

Note, — Each expression maybe expanded to a much greater length than 
in the model. 

I am contented. He went. 

I believe. They stopped. 

Alonzo was not to blame. The choir sung. 

I love to read. Have you heard ? 

The learner can now write short compositions on subjects which are easy 
and familiar, like the following : 

SUBJECTS.* 

A visit. The advantages of an education. 

The sagacity of a clog. A dialogue on the stars. 
A sleigh ride. A story of an elephant. 

A dialogue on the study of grammar. 

An anecdote about Washington. 



* The word subject in this connection signifies theme, or that about which 
we may write or converse. 



§ XL.] COMPOSITION. 129 

LETTER WRITING. 

The following is a proper example for imitation, in respect to the dating, 
beginning and closing of a letter. 

(DEnciu ffvuna 16 } 1769. 
U&^W @)eaV SrUenS : 

Q) am obtiaed to aoti/ l&v ipou/^ i*UHfcatu>n, bob bema lo-na, 
aec^lA>bo^^'wo to iebiA/emenfc, uhm/CIi/ q) uxx,b auiHUM> tonv op 5 QJ am/ nou> 
nioVe tfvan ei>et im^muma, to u-wnb tao<>e n.oi6U/ j>c€Kteb imuc!l!v Q) Yieiyz'v 
looed, and iiMucti/ Qj nou> abno-i/. Qj ternem/bel- aoo/ unm- au/ tlxo 
pii/CROWuh/ Q) z\ye,\j liAoJ-e^j^ed ? uhucJi< ia a& miutfi/ a& QJ aye/u enteitawvea 
foi< ami/ maa>. 

q) Lci>c aoti/ aiw itou/tb 5 C>) mcutui aoii/ koi- aou/l/ contwiu/eo i-emem- 
btance ot me, ano ^nall/ nob cca&e to be tn-eiA/ ana itoufe 

ectionate t^Uend, 

^li/ilu>am/ Hootujvel/, 

C/ OdClUl/ <JXD XL) ©J)Of. 

REMARKS. 

Letters should be written in an easy and natural style, but with a strict regard 
to neatness in the penmanship, and to propriety in the complimentary address 
and close, and also to pointing, folding and superscribing. 

The learner should occasionally write letters to be exawv^d and corrected 
bv the teacher. 



PART IV 



SYNTAX. 
Section XLI. 

391. Part III. was principally devoted to the structure of simple propositions. 
It now remains to combine these so far as is necessary for continued dis- 
course, and to present some practical rules and principles to aid the learner in 
the art of composing. 

COMPOUND SENTENCES. 

392. A compound sentence is one which is made up of 
two or more simple propositions, connected together. 

393. The propositions that make up a compound sentence 
are termed clauses. 

EXAMPLES. 

" The wind subsides and the clouds disperse." 
" The wind subsides " is one proposition. " The clouds disperse " is an- 
other proposition. When united by "and" they form a compound sentence. 

" He was travelling towards Rome when they met him at 
Milan." 

This compound sentence consists of two clauses connected by " when." 

" You will freely communicate to our young monarch that 
knowledge which will fit him to govern himself." 

This is a compound sentence, consisting of two clauses. The last clause 
"which will fit him," &c.,is connected with the word "knowledge" for the 
purpose of limiting its meaning. 

CLASSIFICATION OF CLAUSES. 

394. The clauses of a compound sentence may be divi- 
ded into three general classes, namely ; Independent, Princi- 
pal, and Subordinate. 



§ XLI.] COMPOUND SENTENCES. 131 

395. An Independent Clause is one which makes com- 
plete sense by itself. 

EXAMPLES. 

" God spake, and it was done." 

This compound sentence consists of two independent clauses, connected by 
" and." 

" Socrates was wise ; Plato was also wise." 

This sentence likewise consists of two independent clauses, connected by 
" also." 

" I have been young, but now I am old." 

How many independent clauses does this sentence consist of ? How are 
they connected ? 

396. A Principal Clause is one on which another clause 
depends. 

Note. — The modifying or depending clause is sometimes connected with a 
single word in the principal clause ; as, " Here is the man who befriended me" 

397. A Subordinate' Clause is one connected with the 
principal clause, or with some word in it, to extend or mod- 
ify its meaning. 

EXAMPLES. 

(i I hope that you are well." 

" I hope " is the principal clause. " You are well " is the subordinate 
clause, connected with the principal clause by the conjunction "that." 

"When I am old, forsake me not." 

The principal clause is " forsake me not." The subordinate clause de- 
notes time and is connected by the adverb " when." 

" God, who made all things, is acquainted with our most se- 
cret thoughts." 

The principal clause is, " God is acquainted," &c. The subordinate clause 
M who made all things," is connected with the word " God " to extend its. 
meaning. 

ANALYSIS AND PARSING. 

Model of analyzing a compound sentence, 

Sentence. — " In the beginning of this address I said, and 
I have endeavored to keep my word so far, that I would plead 
only for intellectual interests." 



132 SYNTAX. [§XLII. 

First principal clause. — "I said." "I" is the subject. "Said" is the 
predicate. 

Second principal clause. — " I have endeavored to keep my word so far." The 
conjunction " and " is the connective. " I " is the subject — " have endeavored 
to keep," &c, is the modified predicate. 

Subordinate clause. — "That I would plead only for intellectual interests." 
The conjunction "that" connects the subordinate clause with the first prin- 
cipal clause. The subordinate clause is used as a noun in the objective case 
after " said," and therefore may be termed a substantive clause. 

SENTENCES. 

I come to you in the spirit of peace, yet you will not receive 
me. 

My wrong was dreadful, and I cried aloud. 

Cicero in his youth was covered with glory, but his old age 
was disturbed bj the misfortunes of the republic. 

Conjunctions do not merely in a vague manner denote a re- 
lation ; they also determine the nature of the relation. 

The drum and fife can sometimes drown the battle's noise, 
when there is no way to escape it. 

If study were valuable for nothing else, yet it would be highly 
so for this — that it makes man his own companion. 

398. Subordinate Clauses may be divided into Substan- 
tive, Adjective, Adverbial and Conditional Clauses. 

Section XLII. 

SUBSTANTIVE CLAUSES. 

399. A Substantive Clause is one used in the office of a 
noun in the nominative or objective case. 

A substantive clause may be used, 

1. In apposition with a noun. 

2. As the subject nominative of a verb. 

3. As the predicate nominative. 

4. As the object of a transitive verb or preposition. 

EXAMPLES. 

" The question < what shall I do ? ' was asked by the trembling 
jailer." 



§ xlil] substantive clauses. 133 

The substantive clause " what shall I do ?" is in apposition with " question." 
The clause explains the meaning of " question," in this connection. 

" Know thyself," was written over the gate of the Delphian 

temple. 

The substantive clause "know thyself," is the subject nominative of the 
verb " was written." 

" My wish is that you may be happy." 

The clause " that you may be," &c, is the predicate nominative. 

" We believe true religion w T as never propagated by the 
sword." 

The clause "true religion," &c, is the object of "believe." 

400. A substantive clause is sometimes used in the place 
of a noun. 

EXAMPLES. 

" The victory of Cyrus over the enemy was announced." 

A substantive clause may be used in the place of " victory over the ene- 
my ; " as, "It was announced that Cyrus had conquered the enemy." 

" He showed who had plotted the conspiracy ; " that is, " the 
author of the conspiracy." 

401. Direct and indirect quotations belong to this class of 
clauses. 

402. A quotation is direct when the words of a person are given unaltered 
in the form in which they were stated ; a3, " He would turn about and say, 
4 Hang such a one for disobedience.' " 

403. A quotation is indirect when the words of a person are quoted in the 
form of a narration ; as, " He said that ' the French infantry would soon be- 
come tired of their virtue.' " 

ANALYSIS AND FARSING. 

The substantive clauses in the following sentences may be parsed, in the 
first place, as nouns in the nominative or objective case. Then the words can 
be parsed separately, as in other clauses. 

He seized my hand, pressed it, and replied with strong emo- 
tion — " You have guessed the truth ; you have judged me 
rightly." [Direct quotation.] 

" O ! " replied he, " there is fortunately one tract of literature 
which forms a kind of neutral ground." [Direct quotation.] 
12 



134 SYNTAX. [§ XLIII. 

I am always at a loss to know how much to believe of my 
own stories. 

" Where ami?" murmured she faintly. " All is safe ! " ex- 
claimed I. 

His constant request was that I would permit him to sit by 
me in my saloon. 

It is in vain that their names are posted on the doors of coun- 
try churches. 

Section XLIII. 

ADJECTIVE CLAUSES. 

404. An Adjective Clause is one which is used like an 
adjective or an adjunct, to express a quality or attribute ; as, 
"The man who is prudent is often saved from disappointment." 

405. An adjective clause is commonly connected with some noun or pro- 
noun of the principal clause by the relative who, which, or that ; but sometimes 
by the adverbs while, when, where, why, &c. ; and it frequently serves to define 
the state, quality, or condition of an object, more exactly than a single adjec- 
tive, adjunct or participle could do ; as, " I am he, who teaches the truth,'''' 

COMPOSITION. 

The learner may expand the italicised words into clauses, so as not to alter 
the meaning of the expression. 

Model. 

There are idiomatic expressions in English suited to the grave style. 
Expanded. — There are expressions in English which are idiomatic, [and] 
which are suited to the grave style. 

In conversing on grave subjects we should not use lively and 
familiar forms of expression. 

We often use incorrect and obscure expressions in conversation. 

Some, presuming on the good nature of their friends, write 
their letters in a hasty and disconnected manner. 

Often there is nothing in the object compared, fitted to excite 
emotions of the ludicrous. 

ADVERBIAL CLAUSES. 

406. An Adverbial Clause is one used in the office of an 
adverb or an adjunct to denote time, place, manner, conse- 
quence, effect, cause, &c. 



§ XLIII.] ADVERBIAL CLAUSES. 135 

EXAMPLES. 

"We all know that it adds much to the point of a witty 
remark, when its author has founded it on an expression just 
dropped by another." 

This compound sentence consists of three clauses, — one principal and two 
subordinate clauses. " That it adds much," &c, is a substantive clause, and 
is the object of the verb "know." The adverbial clause is, "when its author 
has," &c. It denotes both time and cause. 

" His predictions were only too true, as the event proved." 

" As the event proved" is the adverbial clause, it is nearly equivalent to 
the adjunct u according to, or corresponding with, the event." 

407. Adverbial clauses are very numerous. They are sometimes merely 
adverbs or adjuncts expanded into clauses, but more generally modify the 
verb or adjective in the principal clause by a more extended explanation than 
a single adverb or adjunct could give. 

CONDITIONAL CLAUSES. 

408. A Conditional Clause is one which expresses some- 
thing contingent or doubtful. 

409. Conditional clauses are united to the principal clause by some word 
or phrase that implies a condition or supposition. 

EXAMPLES. 

" If he is in health, I am content." 

The conditional clause is, "if he is in health." 

" On condition that he come, I will consent to stay." 
" On condition that he come," is the conditional clause. 

ANALYSIS AND PARSING. 

The different kinds of clauses may be pointed out in this exercise. 

He drew up a petition in which he too freely represented his 
own merits. 

The measure is so exceptionable that we cannot by any 
means permit it. 

They have all been treated by me with candor, which they 
have not been careful of observing to one another. 

" I do not know," says Germain, " whether he was mandarin 
and apostle at the same time." 



186 SYNTAX. [§ XLIV 

Do you believe liis story, that there are forty millions of in* 
habitants in Pekin ? 

Rich gifts wax poor when givers prove unkind. 

Let the doors be shut upon hirn, that he may play the fool 
nowhere but in his own house. 

If one man prefers a life of industry, it is because he has an 
idea of comfort and wealth. 

It is certain that I am indebted to him for some flagrant civil- 
ities. 

Section XLIV. 

CONNECTIVES. * 

410. A number of words is employed to denote certain rela- 
tions or connection in discourse. These words have been term- 
ed by different writers, particles, abbreviations, ligaments, con- 
nectives, &c. 

411. These words differ from each other in their import, but 
have one property in common, which is indicated by the gen- 
eral term, connective. But they receive particular names ac- 
cording to their peculiar offices. 

412. Some of these connect words only; as prepositions. 

413. Some connect words with clauses ; as relatives. 

414. Some connect clauses, or parts of clauses with one an- 
other ; as conjunctions, adverbs. 

415. Some of this last class have a still more general office 
in connecting paragraphs, sections, or chapters ; as the words 
wherefore, therefore, then, now, &c. 

# The connective parts of sentences are of all others the most important, 
and require the most care and attention ; for it is by these chiefly that the 
train of thought, the course of reasoning, and the whole progress of the mind 
in continued discourse of all kinds are laid open ; and on the right use of these, 
perspicuity, that is, the first and greatest beauty of style principally depends. 
— Lvwttis Introd. p. 138. 



§ XLIT.] CLAUSES. 137 

CONNECTION OF CLAUSES. 

416. The clauses which make up a compound sentence 
are connected as follows : 

1. By conjunctions. 

2. By adverbs. 

3. By relative words, or phrases. 

4. By incorporation. 

CLAUSES CONNECTED BY CONJUNCTIONS. 

Here review §153. Repeat the list of conjunctions, § 154. 

Do conjunctions connect words ? Give an example. Give other examples, 

EXERCISE I. 

In this exercise and the three following, the learner may explain how the 
clauses are connected. 

You have departed from the example of other nations, and 
you have become an example to them. 

Is this sentence simple or compound ? Of how many clauses is it com- 
posed ? What word connects these clauses ? 

You not only excel modern Europe, but you excel what she 
can boast of old. 

The desert shall rejoice and the wilderness shall blossom. 

Disappointment sinks the heart ; but the renewal of hope 
gives consolation. 

I complained and my spirit was overwhelmed. 

Ask now the beasts and they shall teach thee. 

If you would please to employ your thoughts on that subject, 
you would easily conceive our miserable condition. 

This compound sentence consists of two clauses or simple sentences. 1. 
From if to subjects. 2. From you to condition. 

The conjunction if connects them. 

If he approve my endeavors, it will be an ample reward. 

If I had known the distress of my friend, it would have been 
my duty to relieve him. 

I thought that Titius was your friend. 

That is the conjunction, and connects the two clauses. 

I see that you are sad. 

I respect him because he is sincere. 
12* 



138 SYNTAX. [§ XLIV 

CLAUSES CONNECTED BY ADVERBS. 

EXERCISE II. 

Adverbs which connect clauses are called conjunctive adverbs ; they gener 
ally denote time, place, or quantity. 

When he is in town, he lives in Soho square. 

This sentence consists of two clauses. 1. " He is in town." 2. " He lives 
in Soho square." They are connected by the conjunctive adverb when* 

Whilst I was lamenting this sudden desolation, the whole 

scene vanished. 

Whilst connects the two clauses. 

Where I am there shall ye be. 

The rest will I set in order when I come. 

CLAUSES CONNECTED BY RELATIVE WORDS OR PHRASES. 
EXERCISE III. 

417. Relative words are, who, whose, which, that, whom, 
what, and their compounds ; also, expressions that denote com- 
parison ; as, the more, the better, and the like. 

He came to the Alps, which separate Italy from Gaul. 

This compound sentence is composed of two clauses. 1. "He came to 
the Alps." 2. " Separate Italy from Gaul." The relative which connects 
them, and stands in the place of Alps, to which it refers as its antecedent. 

I read the letter which he received. 

It is God whom we worship. 

I am Miltiades, who conquered the Persians. 

The city which Romulus built is called Home. 

418. Conjunctive Phrases are, in order that, in as much as, to the intent that, 
on condition that, $c. 

CLAUSES CONNECTED BY INCORPORATION. 
EXERCISE IV. 

419. A clause is connected by incorporation when it is used 
as an essential part of a proposition, or as explanatory of some 



§ XLV.] ABRIDGED CLAUSES. 139 

word in it. As such it is employed either in the nominative or 

objective case. 

Note. — This kind of connection exists in fact with every form of substan 
tive and adjective clauses. But in practice it maybe better to restrict it to 
direct quotations, and to those cases in which the connective is not used as a 
word of relation, and in which no connective is expressed. 

" You will depart with but a small retinue," said the Baronet. 

There is no connective between these two clauses. And one cannot be 
supplied without changing the form. Still there are two distinct clauses, each 
having its subject expressed, but the former is an essential part of the latter; 
namely, the object of " said." 

" Much depends upon who the commander is." 

The clause " who the commander, is," is the object of the preposition 
" upon," and together with the preposition, is an adjunct of the verb in the 
principal clause. 

" Stop ! " said the German in a tone of anger. 
" I do not mean/' said the Antiquary, " to intrude upon your 
lordship." 

" That your worship is right, is perfectly manifest." 
" You are a tyrant," he answered with a sort of sigh. 



Section XLV. 

ABRIDGED OR SUBSTITUTED CLAUSES. 

420. Subordinate Clauses frequently admit of being changed 
to shorter or different forms of expression without alteration in 
the sense. 

421. An Adjective Clause is sometimes represented by an 
adjective ; as, " Every work that is fictitious" that is, " every 
fictitious work, should be favorable to good morals." 

422. A subordinate clause is sometimes represented by a 
verb in the infinitive mode ; as, " I have come to Paris that I 
may learn the French language," that is, to learn, or in order 
to learn. " I hope that I may see you here ; " that is, I hope to 
see you, &c. 

423. Subordinate clauses are often changed so as to become 
adjuncts of the principal clauses. 



140 SYNTAX. [§ XLV, 

EXAMPLES. 

I heard yesterday that he is appointed judge. 

Changed. I heard yesterday of his being appointed judge. 

In such examples the whole subordinate clause becomes the object of the 
preposition in the substituted form, and the noun that was the predicate 
nominative remains unchanged. 

424. A subordinate clause is sometimes abridged by using a 
participle in place of the verb, omitting the connective, and 
making the subject independent. 

EXAMPLES. 

" Since our work is finished, let us depart." 

Abridged. " Our work being finished, let us depart." 

16 While Tarquinius was reigning, Pythagoras came into 

Italy." 

Abridged. " Tarquinius reigning, Pythagoras came into 

Italy." 

In these examples the change has been made by substituting for the verb 
"is finished" and "was reigning," the participles "being finished" and 
"reigning," and omitting the connectives "since " and "while." The subject 
is now independent, that is, it is no longer used as the subject of the propo- 
sition. 

425. Almost every form of expression admits of some change 
without alteration in the sense. That form should be chosen, 
which expresses thought in the most natural and forcible man- 
ner. For this end the taste and intelligence of the writer or 
speaker avails more than rules. 

EXERCISE. 

In this exercise the learner may abridge the subordinate clauses in the 
following sentences according to the examples given above. 

Since life is short, it becomes us to be diligent. As the way 
was steep and difficult, we proceeded slowly. When shame is 
lost, all virtue is lost. When hope fails, the mind sinks in dis- 
couragement. Since you are our leader, we have nothing to 
fear. (See Rule XII, Syntax.) I am sorry that I have 
offended you. I am glad to hear that he is elected senator 
The being who created all things must be omnipotent. 



§ XL VI.] PHRASES. 141 



Section XLVI. 

PHRASES. 

426. Phrases may be divided into three classes, Substan- 
tive, Adjective, and Adverbial. 

427. A Substantive Phrase is a combination of words not 
forming a clause, used in the office of a noun in the nominative 
or objective case. 

1. A substantive phrase may be the subject or predicate nominative ; as, 
" To live soberly is required of all." 

2. It may be the object of a transitive verb or preposition ; as, " Most men 
love to be called great" "Averse to the nation's involving itself in another war.'''* 
" The crime of being a young many 

3. A substantive phrase may also be in apposition with a noun or the pro- 
noun it. Is "it" an easy thing to become a poet f 

428. An Adjective Phrase is an adjunct of a noun, and con- 
sists of a preposition and its object. This kind of phrase is ex- 
plained in Part IT. See 121, 126. 

429. An Adverbial Phrase is an adjunct of a verb or adjec- 
tive, and consists also of a preposition and its object. This is 
likewise explained in Part II. See 147. 

430. The Adjective and Adverbial Phrases serve a most im- 
portant purpose in speech. 

431. The adjective phrase modifies a noun by expressing: 

1. Quality; as, " An act of justice." 2. Property; as, " The writings of 
Johnson." 3. Origin or source ; as, " The products of the soil." 4. Condition 
or circumstance ; as, "A prisoner in chains." 5. Place ; as, "A ship in the 
harbor." 6. Identity; as, " The city of Athens." 7. Time; as, "A period 
of twenty years." 

432. The adverbial phrase modifies the meaning of a verb, 

by expressing : 

1. Cause ; as, " The ground is warmed by the sun." 2. Manner ; as, "He 
writes tvith care." 3. Place; as, "He has resided in Paris." 4. Objector 
end ; as, "He seeks, for office." 5. "Accompaniment; as, " He travelled with 



142 SYNTAX. [§ XL VI, 

his family. 17 6. Likeness; as, "'He seemed like Ms brother." 7. Time; as, 
" He will be absent during the summer." 8. Distance ; as, " He travelled thirty 
miles in a day." 

Note. — The preposition is commonly omitted before nouns that denote 
time, distance, &c. 

433. Connected with an adjective the adverbial phrase denotes, 1. The 
end to which the quality is directed ; as, " Fit for use." 2. The object or cause 
of some affection or emotion of the mind; as, "Fond of fruit." "Harassed 
with debt" 3. The whole, when preceded by a partitive word ; as, " The best 
of all." " Fifty of the soldiers." It likewise expresses the difference in de- 
gree ; as, " Greater by far." " Higher by fifty feet." 

434. Other combinations frequently occur, which have no modifying power, 
but serve as connectives, and might be termed conjunctive phrases, or prepo- 
sitional phrases, according to their office in a sentence. 

Note. — In the general analysis of sentences, phrases may be treated in 
the same manner as the parts of speech for which they respectively stand. 

ANALYSIS AND PARSING. 

Particular attention to be given to clauses and phrases and abridged propo- 
sitions. 

I recollect hearing a traveller, of poetical temperament, ex- 
pressing the kind of horror which he felt in beholding, on the 
banks of the Missouri, an oak of prodigious size which had 
been in a manner overpowered by an enormous wild grape vine. 

The vine had clasped its huge folds round the trunk, and 
from thence had wound about every branch and twig, until the 
mighty tree had withered in its embrace. 

It seemed like Laocoon struggling ineffectually in the hideous 
coils of the monster Python. It was the lion of trees perishing 
in the embrace of a vegetable boa. 

Happiness is found in the arm-chair of dozing age, as well as 
in the sprightliness of the dance, or the animation of the chase. 



§ XL VII.] RULES OF SYNTAX. 143 

RULES OF SYNTAX. 
Section XLVII. 

The following rules or statements of grammatical principles have been grad- 
ually developed in the progress of the work. The learner is now to verify 
them by analyzing the sentences arranged in exercises under the Rules respec- 
tively. A number of these was given in Parts II. and IE. which are further 
extended and illustrated in this part. 

THE NOUN AND PRONOUN.* 
RULE I. 

435. A noun or a pronoun limiting another noun, and de- 
noting the same person or thing, is put, by apposition, in the 
same case ; as, " Cicero, the orator" See 115. 

REMARKS. 

1. A noun is sometimes in apposition with a clause ; as, " The eldest son was 
always brought up to that employment, a custom which he and my father fol- 
lowed." 

2. A clause or a phrase is sometimes in apposition with a noun preceding it ; 
as, "I would only mention at present one article, that of maintenance of the 
clergy y 

3. A noun in apposition is frequently connected with the one that is limited by 
the conjunction as; as, "My father intended to devote me as the tythe of 
his sons. 

Note. — The word as appears to be used frequently in the sense of the 
Latin preposition pro, instead of in place of for ^ or in the capacity of 

4. When two nouns in apposition come together in the possessive case, the 
sign is omitted after the first; as, "John the Baptist's head." 

5. A noun in apposition with two or more nouns, is put in the plural. 

6. A noun in apposition is sometimes used without the possessive sign, to limit 
a pronoun in the possessive case; as, "His office as judge must be respon- 
sible." In this sentence judge refers to his, although it appears to be in the same 
case with office. This construction is anomalous, but something analogous to 
it is found in other languages. 

7. The limiting noun is sometimes used with a preposition ; as, " The city of 
Boston ; " " The title of king." 



* For Exercises in composition, the learner is referred to the section follow- 
ing General Exercise III. after Syntax. 



144 SYNTAX. [§ XLVII. 

ANALYSIS AND PARSING. 

Herschel, the astronomer, discoverexl the planet Uranus. 

Washington, the commander-in-chief of the American army, 
was born near the banks of the Potomac. 

Webster, a dramatic poet of the seventeenth century, was 
clerk of the parish of St. Andrew. 

The Tippecanoe, a river of Indiana, is rendered famous for a 
battle between the Americans and Indians. 

I dined w r ith him at our friend Davies's. 

I received this reply, " He is better." 

You are too humane and considerate ; things which few peo- 
ple can be charged with. 

I am pleased with your appointment as chaplain. 

REVIEW. 

Define the word apposition. Repeat the rules for nouns in apposition. Can 
words of different meaning be in apposition ? Give some examples of nouns 
in apposition. Explain the rule of apposition, by the expressions, George, the 
king ; Alexander, the conquerer. Can a noun be in apposition with a clause or a 
sentence ? This was a saying of Franhlin; " Time is money." What words are 
in apposition in this sentence ? Samuel Johnson. Are these words in apposi- 
tion ? See 172. Sect. XV. 

RULE II. 

436. A noun in the predicate after an intransitive verb, 
is in the same case as the subject when both w T ords refer to 
the same person or thing ; as, " It is he ; he has become a 
poet." See 105. 

Note. — This rule is chiefly applicable to the verbs to be, to become, and 
some other intransitive verbs, and also to some transitive verbs in the passive 
form ; such as denote to name, to render, to make, and the like. 

REMARKS. 

1. This rule applies also to the infinitive and participles of verbs of the same 
class ; as, " I desire to be a, poet," " I believe him to be a knave." 

2. In expressions like the following there is found, perhaps, an exception to 
the remark above ; " He is angry with me on account of my being a friend to his 
enemy." The phrase " of my being a friend" is an abridged expression 
equivalent to " because I am a friend," in which " friend "is in the nominative 
case ; so in the following, "I am suspicious of his being a rogue; " that is, 
that he is a rogue. 

In the abridged form the entire phrase my being a friend, or his being a rogue, 



§ XL VII.] PREDICATE NOMINATIVE. 145 

is the object of the proposition, but the words " friend" and "rogue" mav 
be considered in the same case as they would be in the unabridged form. 

3. The construction of a noun after the verbs to be,to become, tfc., when 
they form together a substantive phrase, may be explained in a similar way. 
In the sentence " to be a learned man is no easy attainment," the whole phrase 
" to be a learned man " is the subject of is, and the noun " man " may be con- 
sidered in the nominative case after "to be."^ 

4. A phrase or a proposition is sometimes used as the predicate nominative 
as, " To steal is to break the law." 

5. Both words sometimes stand before, and sometimes after the verb ; as, 
"Art thou he ? " "Am /a traitor V 1 " Monster as thou art, I will yet obey thee." 

ANALYSIS AND PARSING. 

Intransitive Verbs. 
Clement was the name of many popes. 
A coronation is a solemn inauguration of a monarch. 
The diamond is the most valuable gem. 
The youth will become a poet. 
Stephen died a martyr to his faith. 

Passive J brm. 

Washington is called the father of his country. 

Napoleon Bonaparte, an inhabitant of Corsica, was styled the 
Emperor of France. 

In England, a kind of trident is used for catching eels, called 
an eel-spear. 

Cicero and Antonius were called consuls. 

I am tired of being an idler. 

I cannot bear the thought of being an exile from my country. 

TO BE CORRECTED. 
Show by Rule II. wherein these examples are incorrect, 
/that speak unto thee am him. It was not him that said it, 
It cannot be him. Whom are you ? Whom do men say that /am ? 
Who do they represent me to be ? I do not think it is him. 
Did you believe it to he he? I did not think of its being him. 
If I were him I would not tolerate it. 

* This explanation accords with the views of N, Butler and S. S, Green. 
Bullions considers the noun or pronoun in such relations to be in the objec- 
tive case. 

13 



146 SYNTAX. [§ XL VIII 



REVIEW. 

Repeat Rule II. How does Rule II. differ from Rule I ? Ans. Cases of 
Rule II. occur where a verb separates the two nouns ; as, u Time is money ; " is 
separates time and money ; in cases of Rule I. no verb intervenes ; as, u Cicero, 
the orator." Give some examples of nouns in apposition. . " Cicero, the ora- 
tor." Which Rule is applicable to this expression ? " Cicero was an orator." 
Which rule applies ? Give some examples of the same case after as be- 
fore the verb. What sometimes supplies the place of one of the nouns ? Give 
an example. Why is the expression it is me, incorrect ? 



Section XLVIIL 

Rule III. 

437. The subject of a finite verb must be in the nomina- 
tive case. 

Rule IV. 

438. A verb must agree with its subject nominative in 
number and person. 

Note. — The verbs need and dare, when intransitive, are sometimes used 
in the plural form with a singular nominative. 

REMARKS. 

1. A substantive clause or phrase is often the subject of a verb. 

2. In declarative sentences or conditional clauses, the subject nominative usu- 
ally precedes the verb ; but in interrogative and imperative sentences it com- 
monly follows the verb, or its auxiliary. 

Examples. — " He reads.' 1 " The rain falls." " If /go." " Believest than 
this?" " Who art thou ? " 

3. The subject nominative also follows the verb when a supposition is ex- 
pressed without the conjunction if; as, " Were it not for this." u Had I been 
there." Also, when the verb is preceded by there, here, then, thence; or 
by neither or nor ; as, u Ye shall not eat of it, neither shall ye touch it." 

4. An intransitive verb between two nominatives of different numbers or 
persons, should agree with that which is more naturally the subject of the af- 
firmation ; as, "His meat was locusts and wild honey." " The wages of sin 
is death." 

In such cases the verb more commonly agrees with the noun that pre- 
cedes it. 

5. MethinTcs (imperfect meihought,) is called an impersonal verb, compound- 
ed of the pronoun me, in the objective case, and the verb think, which folio ws 
the analogy of some Latin and Greek verbs, and by custom is used with the 



§ XLVIII.] SUBJECT NOMINATIVE. 147 

objective instead of the nominative case, and takes the form of the third person 
instead of the first. 

6. As regards, as concerns, as respects, as appears. These are phrases with- 
out a nominative case expressed. The pronoun it is often used before these 
verbs, and is easily supplied when wanting. 

7. As follows. The nominative case can be supplied before this verb as 
the connection requires. " He addressed the assembly as follows" This can be 
analyzed thus, " He addressed the assembly in a manner as this which follows ." 

By several authors, as is considered a relative pronoun when used before 
the verb follows ; as, " The circumstances were as follow," [those ivhich follow.] 

8. A verb in the Imperative mode, and the transitive verbs need, want and 
require, sometimes appear to be used indefinitely without a nominative ; as, 
" There required haste in the business ; " " there needs no argument for prov- 
ing;" "there wanted not men who would," &c. The last expressions have 
an active form with a passive sense, and should, perhaps, be considered ellipti- 
cal rather than wanting a nominative ; as, " Haste is required," " no argument 
is needed," &c. 

9. The verb which agrees with the nominative case is sometimes omitted ; 
as, " To whom the monarch;" replied is omitted. " What a bloom in that per- 
son ! " The verb is is omitted. 

ANALYSIS AND PARSING. 

Varro was esteemed a learned man, but Aristides was called 
just. 

Titus has been called the love and delight of the human race. 

Shall a barbarian have these cultivated fields ? 

At Burlington, I made an acquaintance with many principal 
people of the province. 

The first impression made by the proceedings of the Ameri- 
can Congress on our people in general, was greatly in our favor. 

To be natural is to be antiquated. 

To use correct and elegant English is to plod. 

To be ever active in laudable pursuits, is the distinguishing 
characteristic of a man of merit. 

To see the sun is pleasant. 

To excel in knowledge is honorable ; but to be ignorant is 
base. 

That you may enjoy every felicity, is my fervent prayer. 

Promising and not pei'forming, is evidence of insincerity. 

Methinks this single consideration will be sufficient to extin* 
guish all envy. 



148 SYNTAX. [§ XL VIII. 

Methought I was admitted into a long spacious gallery. 

I am indifferent as regards my personal security. 

As appears from the evidence, he is guilty of an atrocious 
crime. 

Let there be no strife betwixt me and thee. 

" Marry/' says* I, " if it be so, I am very well rewarded for 
all the pains I have been at." — Addison. 

TO BE CORRECTED. 

Show by the rule why these examples are incorrect. 

The clouds has dispersed. The rivers has overflowed their 
banks. There was three Indians in the company. A variety 
of blessings has been conferred upon us. In piety and virtue 
consist the" happiness of man. What names has the planets? 
There goes the ships freighted with treasure. There follows 
from thence these plain consequences. There is men who nev- 
er reason. The smiles that encourage severity of judgment, 
hides malice and insincerity. Some foggy days, and about ten 
or twelve days in January, was cold and icy. How do your 
pulse beat ? How does your plans succeed ? What signifies 
good opinions when our practice is bad ? TJiere was more im- 
postors than one. The virtue of these men and women are in- 
deed exemplary. 

REVIEW. 

Repeat rules III. and IV. and explain them by examples. " To err is hu- 
man." — Show how the rule applies in this sentence. What is human ? what 
then is the nominative ? which remark under rule IV. is applicable ? " Whence 
art thou ?" — Which word is the nominative ? does the nominative generally 
stand before or after the verb ? How is methinhs explained ? What is said 
of as regards, as concerns, &c. ? Are any verbs used without a nominative 
case? 



* There are irregular expressions occasionally to be met with, which usage 
or custom sanction, rather than analogy. Such as, " says I" u thinks /," &c. 
These however, are ungrammatical, and should not be imitated. 



§ XLVIII.] ANALYSIS AND PARSING. 14.9 



Rule V. 

439. Two or more nominatives singular, connected by 
and, expressed or understood, generally require a plural 
verb ; as, Charles, Thomas, and George are brothers.* 

REMARKS. 

1. When the nouns are taken separately, or are emphatically distinguished, 
they may be regarded as belonging to separate propositions ; as, " Every offi 
cer and every soldier claims a superiority." "Ambition and not the safety 
of the state was concerned." 

The nouns, in a compound subject, are taken separately when preceded 
by every , each, no, or not ; or some other disuniting word ; as, u Every adjective 
and every adjective pronoun belongs" [not belong,] &c.f 

2. If in such cases the nouns are of different numbers, the verb should 
agree with the first ; as, " Diligent industry, and not mean savings, produces 
honorable competence." 

3. When the nouns connected by and refer to the same person or thing, 
the verb is singular ; as, " Why is dust and ashes proud ? " 

4. When the nominatives connected by and are of different persons, the verb 
agrees with the first person rather than with the second, and with the second, 
rather than with the third ; as, "My brother and I are interested in the work," 
The verb are is in the first person, because / is of the first person ; and it is in 
the plural number, because "brother" and "I" are connected by and, and 
make a compound subject. 

ANALYSIS AND PAUSING. 

Model. 

Sentence. — Tranquillity and love dwell here. 

Analyzed. The sentence is simple, having a compound subject. 

" Tranquility and love," is the compound subject ; " and " is the connec- 
tive. 

* The best English authors sometimes imitate the Greek and Roman wri- 
ters in using a singular verb after nouns connected by and ; as, " Their safety 
and welfare is most concerned." — Spectator. The majority of Grammarians, 
however, do not approve this license. 

t A nominative singular sometimes has an adjunct connected with it, by 
with, in company with, or by some other connective phrase, which gives, in refer- 
ence to the whole subject, the idea of plurality, and occasionally such a sub- 
ject is used with a plural verb ; as, " The angle A. with the angles B. and 0., 
compose [composes j the triangle ;" " The king, with the lords and commons, 
constitute [constitutes] an excellent form of government." In all such examples; 
a singular verb is more strictly in accordance with the principles of construe' 
tion, and with the usage of the best writers. 



150 SYNTAX. [§ XLVIII. 

" Dwell " is the predicate modified by here. Or the sentence may be con 
sidered compound, and be resolved into two simple sentences ; as, " Tran- 
quillity dwells here, and love dwells here; " in this case "and" connects the 
verbs. The former method is preferable. 

Reason and truth constitute intellectual gold. 

Riches, honors, and pleasures, steal away the heart from re- 
ligion. 

The planetary system, boundless space, and the immense 
ocean, affect the mind with sensations of astonishment. 

Prosperity with humility, renders its possessor truly amiable. 

The useful arts improved by science, and science itself im- 
proved by philosophy, confer power on civilized and instructed 
man, and enable him to triumph over his fellows and over 
nature. 

TO BE CORRECTED. 
The reasons for the correction should be given in every instance. 
Idleness and ignorance is the parent of many vices. Time and 
tide waits for no man. Patience and diligence, like faith, re- 
moves mountains. The forehead, the eyes, and the countenance, 
often deceives. Castor and Pollux was seen to fight on horse- 
back. The following treatise, with those which accompany it, 
were written many years ago. His wisdom, not his money, 
produce esteem. The sides A. B. and C. forms the triangle. 
My uncle with his son were in town yesterday. That able 
scholar and grammarian have been refuted. The discomfiture 
and slaughter was very great. And so was also James and 
John. By whose power all good and evil is distributed. 

Rule VI. 

440. Two or more nominatives singular, connected by or 
or nor, require a singular verb ; as, Ambition or pride con- 
trols him. 

REMARKS. 

1. If either of the nominatives thus connected is plural, the verb usually 
agrees with it ; as, ".Neither poverty nor riches were injurious to him." But 
in this case the plural nominative should be placed next to the verb. 



§ XLVIII.] NOMINATIVE. 151 

2. If the nominatives connected by or or nor, a re of different persons, the 
verb agrees with the person placed next to it ; as, " Either thou or / am mis- 
taken." 

3. Of two or three pronouns of different persons, the second is usually 
placed before the third, and the first should always be placed nearest to the 
verb ; as, " George or I am the person." Such expressions as, " Either you or / 
am in fault," " George or / am the person," are inelegant, and may be easily 
avoided. It would be better to say, either / am to blame, or you are ; either 
George is in fault, or I am. 

ANALYSIS AND PARSING. 

The method of analyzing examples under this rule is similar to that pre- 
sented in the model under Rule V. 

Ignorance or negligence has caused the mistake. 
John, James, or Andrew, intends to accompany you. 
Death or some worse misfortune soon divides them. 
History or geography is a proper study for youth. 
Extreme heat or extreme cold is painful. 
Man's happiness or misery is in a great measure put into his 
own hands. 

One or both of the witnesses were present. 



Rule VII. 

441. The nominative of a collective noun requires a verb 
in the singular or plural, according as the noun denotes 
unity or plurality ; as, " 'The class ivas large ; my people 
do not consider.' 5 

REMARKS. 

1. The plural form of the verb is more commonly used. 

2. When the definitive this, or that, precedes the noun, the verb must be 

Singular. 

ANALYSIS AND PARSING-. 

A part mount the horses and guide the reins. 
A great multitude hurl stones and darts. 
The court has just ended. 

In France the peasantry go barefoot, and the middle class 
make use of wooden shoes. 



152 SYNTAX. [§ XLIX. 

Why do the heathen rage and the people imagine a vain 
thing. 

The people rejoice in that which should cause them sorrow. 

The fleet was seen sailing up the channel. 

The nobility are the pillars to support the throne. 

A company of troops was detached. 

TO BE CORRECTED BY RULES VI. AND VII. 

James or Charles were in fault. Neither authority nor anal- 
ogy support such an opinion. Either ability or inclination were 
wanting. Neither the father nor the son were saved. Neither 
the general nor the soldiers was charged with cowardice. The 
British parliament are composed of king, lords and commons. 
A council were called. The crowd were very great. This 
sort of goods are not fashionable. That party were in an error. 
This company are handsomely uniformed. The court of Rome 
were not without solicitude. 

GENERAL REVIEW OF THE NOMINATIVE CASE. 

Repeat Rules III. IV. V. VI. and VII. When must the verb be singular ? 
Give examples. When must a verb be plural ? Give examples. What be- 
sides a noun can be the subject of a verb ? When a nominative is a verb in 
the infinitive, or a sentence, what must be the person and number of the verb ? 
iAns. Third person, singular. If two infinitives are connected by and, in 
what number must the verb be ? Ans. Plural. When pronouns of different 
persons are connected by and, in which person must the verb be ? If con- 
nected by or, in which person. 

Section XLIX. 

THE POSSESSIVE CASE. 

EULE VIII. 

442. A noun or pronoun in the possessive case, limits tho 
noun which denotes the object possessed. See 120. 

REMARKS. 

I. The noun denoting the thing owned or possessed is often omitted, when it 
can be easily supplied ; as, " We dined at Peter GarricVs ; " house is omitted. 
Vital air was a discovery of Priestley's ; that is, of Priestley's discoveries; the 
same as to say, " Vital air was one of Priestley's discoveries. 



§ XLIX.j POSSESSIVE CASE. 153 

2. When two or more nouns imply joint possession, the sign ('s) is gen- 
erally omitted after the first, but annexed to the last ; as, " Sanborn and 
Carter's bookstore." Sanborn and Carter, joint owners, are both in the pos- 
sessive case, and are governed by "bookstore; " but the sign is annexed to 
Carter only. 

3. When two or more nouns denote separate ownership, each noun has the 
sign annexed ; as, " Cowper's, Thomson's and Coleridge's works. " Works " is 
understood after each possessive. 

4. When the possessive is denoted by two or more words so closely related 
as not to admit a pause between them, the last generally has the sign ; as, 
" John the Baptist's head." " The king of Great Britain's prerogative." "At 
our friend Sir Robert Hinckley's." " The captain of the guard's house." 

5. In case of possessives in apposition, if the limited word is omitted, the 
sign is generally annexed to the first, especially if it is limited by more than 
one word; as, "I dined at Walton's, an amiable and worthy man." "I left 
the parcel at Smith's, the bookseller and stationer." 

6. The preposition q/'with its objective case, is often equivalent to the pos- 
sessive case ; as, " The advice of my father." Or, " My father's advice." 

7. The possessive is often used to limit a participial noun, or a phrase be- 
ginning with a present participle ; as, " Much will depend on the pupil's com- 
posing frequently." Pupil's is governed by the participial noun composing.* 

8. The use of the possessive case, in composing, is attended sometimes with 
harshness and obscurity, which may be avoided by employing the preposition 
of, or the expressions, the property of, or, belonging to ; as, " This was my father 
and brother's farm;" — better thus, this farm belonged to, or, was the property 
of, my father and brother. " They condemned the prodigal's, as he was 
called, extravagant conduct ; " — it should be, " they condemned the extrava- 
gant conduct of the prodigal," as he was called. " She began to extol the 
farmer's, as she called him, excellent understanding;" — it should be, " the 
excellent understanding of the farmer," as she called him. 



ANALYSIS AND PARSING. 

He spoke slightingly of Dyer's fleece. 

I asked for Barkerville's edition of Barclay's Apology. 

My ways are not thy ways. 

He accompanied me to St. Mary's Church. 

His lady was the daughter of Johnson's first schoolmaster. 

I have received your letter. 

Their insolence is intolerable. 



* The participle used as a noun, still retains its verbal properties, and may 
govern the objective case, or be modified by an adverb or adjunct, like the 
verb from which it is derived. 



154: SYNTAX. [§XLIX. 

My country has claims, my children have claims, and my 
own character has claims upon me. 

You will see his sister at Mr. Hector's. 

I found Dr. Johnson at Mr. Seward's. 

Sometimes I smoke a pipe at Child's (coffee house.) 

This was a discovery of Newton's. 

There was also a book of De Foe's, and another of Dr. 
Mather's. 

This took place at our friend Sir Joshua Reynold's. 

The manner of a young lady's employing herself usefully in 
reading, will be the subject of another paper. 

Very little time was necessary for Johnson's concluding a 
treaty with the bookseller. 

He added an anecdote of Quin's relieving Thomson from 
prison. 

He pathetically described the parent's and the son's mis- 
fortune. 

He reminded Dr. Johnson of Mr. Murphy's having paid him 
the highest compliment that ever was paid to a layman. 

I dined with him at our friend Davies's. 

I gave him an account of my having examined the chest of 
books which he had sent to me. 

TO BE CORRECTED BY THE REMARKS UNDER RULE VIII. 

Webster or Johnson's Dictionary. Washington and Taylor's 
courage. Bancroft or Prescott's History. Ferdinand's and Isa- 
bella's reign. Hyde's, Lord's, and Duren's bookstore. Mr. 
Murphy mentioned Dr. Johnson having a design to publish an 
edition of Cowley. I dined with him at Mr. Thrale. Fanciful 
people may talk of a mythology being amongst them. There is 
no danger of that complaint being made at present. The 
bishop's of Landaff excellent works. I will not, for David's 
thy father's sake. Much depends on this rule being ofo- 
gerved. 



§L.] OBJECTIVE CASE. 155 

EXERCISE. 

Change the following sentences into other forms which shall convey the 
same meaning. 

Model 
This was the king of England's eldest son. 
Cluinged. This was the eldest son of the king of England. 
The declaration was published in the army's name. 
Changed. The declaration was published in the name of the army. 

Sentences to he changed. 
A mother's tenderness and a father's care, are nature's gifts 
for man's advantage. This was John, Robert and Charles's 
estate. Very little time was necessary for Johnson's concluding 
a treaty with the bookseller. This property was my father's, 
my brother's, and my uncle's. This was John Johnson's eldest 
son's estate. This was a discovery of Sir Isaac Newton's. He 
is ignorant of the country's condition. 

REVIEW. 

What is the rule for the government of nouns or pronouns in the possessive 
case ? What is the sign of the possessive case ? When two or more nouns 
denote the joint owners of the same thing, to which is the sign annexed ? W r hen 
can the noun be omitted which governs the possessive case ? Give some ex- 
amples. When the possessive is governed by a participial clause, can the 
sign be properly omitted ? Repeat the rule and remarks for the government 
and use of the possessive case. 

Section L. 

OBJECTIVE CASE. 
Rule ix. 
443. The object of a transitive verb, or a preposition, 
must be in the objective case ; as, " The sun imparts warmth 
to the ground." 

Note. — Participles of transitive verbs in the active form, likewise govern 
the objective case. 

REMARKS. 

1. Some intransitive verbs are followed by an objective of a kindred signi- 
fication to their own ;as, " He dreamed a dream ; " let him die the death" ; "to 
run the race ; " " to sleep the sleep of death ; " "to live a life of ease ; " "he 
went his way." 



156 Si'JN'TAX. [§ I, 

2. Similar to this idiom are expressions like the following ; "groves whoso 
trees wept odorous gums." " The crispid brook ran nectar." " Her lips blush- 
ed deeper sweets."* 

3. The objective whom, which or that should stand before the verb that gov- 
erns it, and except in interrogative sentences before the subject of the verb ; 
as, " Whom ye seek." " The story which he told." 

ANALYSIS AND PARSING. 

Disappointment sinks the heart of man. 

Foolish pursuits delight some persons. 

A variety of pleasing objects charms the eye. 

I have read your letter. I commend your diligence. 

The President's speech is so important to the public, that I 
know you will be anxious to see it as early as possible. 

I will resign my office and remain with you. 

That is the friend whom you must receive cordially, and 
whom you cannot esteem too highly. 

They wdiom opulence has made proud, and whom luxury has 
corrupted, cannot relish the simple pleasures of nature. 

TO BE CORRECTED. 

Who did they send ? He that is idle reprove. He and they 
we know. He invited my brother and I to examine his library. 
Ye hath he quickened. Who shall I call you ? He who com- 
mitted the offence, you should correct, not I who am innocent. 
He who is in fault I will chastise. Who shall I direct this letter 
to ? Who will you vote for ? He and they we know, but who 
are you. 

Rule x. 

444. Nouns which denote time, quantity, measure, dis- 
tance, value, or direction, are often put in the objective case 



* Some verbs were formerly used as transitive, which are no longer consid- 
ered as such; as, "He repented him;" "flee Seaway." Cease, however, 
is used as a transitive verb by our best writers ; as 7 " Cease thy impious rage." 
Webster, 



§ L.] OBJECTIVE. 157 

without a preposition ; as, " He is ten years old" ; "the rule 
is a foot in length." 

Note. — In analyzing, such nouns with the adjectives joined to them are to 
be treated as adjuncts, modifying or limiting some other words in the sentence 
Some grammarians prefer to have a preposition supplied in explaining the con- 
struction of such words. In some instances this is easily done, in others it is 
not admissible.* 

REMARKS. 

1. The word home after the verbs come, go, and the like, is generally in the 
objective case without a preposition ; as, " My intention is to come home, un- 
less I receive a commission to St. James's-" 

Note. — When an adjective or an article is joined to the words home, north, 
&c. the preposition is used; as, " He has gone to his home.-' 

2. The words like, near and nigh are commonly followed by the objective 
case without a preposition ; as, " He is like his father;" " He lives near the 
river." 

3- Xouns that denote particular points of time are generally used with a 
preposition, but not always ; as, "At that lunvr ;" " In the morning" 

ANALYSIS AND PARSING. 

Congress has been in session three months. 

Note. — Three months answers to the question how long ? and modifies the 
predicate of the sentence ; months is in the objective case without a preposi- 
tion. 

He was absent from his native country six years. 

They excavated a pit twenty feet in depth. 

One morning we walked out together. 

Wednesday, Nov. 1st., we left Paris. 

The storm burst upon us three leagues from the land. 

They travelled north, south, east and west. 

The people looked this way and that way, but discovered 
jo means of escape. 

Rule xi. 
two objectives. 

445. Verbs signifying to ask, to teach, to call, to pay, to 
allow, to give, to make, to constitute, and some others, fre- 

* Lowth, followed by the whole tribe of writers on this subject, alleges some 
prepositions to be understood before these expressions of time. But this is a 
palpable error arising from preconceived notions of the necessity of such 
words. The fact is otherwise ; all these peculiar phrases are idiomatic, and 
are remains of the early state of our language. — Webster, 

u 



158 SYNTAX. [§ L. 

quently govern two objective cases ; as, " He asked me a 
question ; " " and God called the firmament Heaven; " 
" God seems to have made Mm what he was." " They chose 
or elected him clerk" " Simon, he surnamed Peter" 

REMARKS. 

1. A preposition is often used before one of the objectives following the 
verbs ask, teach, paij, allow and promise, and can easily be supplied when omit- 
ted. 

2. An infinitive or an entire clause is often used as one of the objectives ; as, 
" He asked me to give him money. 

3. The verb cost is sometimes followed by two objectives ; as, *' It cost me 
much labor.'" 

4. Verbs which have two objectives in the active form, retain one of them 
in the passive, and the other becomes the subject ; as " He asked me a question." 
[active form.] U A question was asked me," or "/was asked a question" [passive 
form.] The last expression, namely, " I was asked a question," is anomalous, 
but authorized by good usage. 

ANALYSIS AND PARSING. 

Model 
Sentence.— A wise man will teach his sons justice. 

Analyzed. — "A wise man," is the modified subject. "Will teach hi3 
sons justice," is the modified predicate. The predicate will teach, is modified, 
1st, by its direct object, sons; 2d, by justice, which may be called the indirect 
object of teach ; if the preposition of, or about, were supplied before justice, 
the expression of justice would be the adjunct of will teach. 

Parsed. — "Sons," is a common noun, third person, plural, masculine 
gender, objective case, and the object of teach. 

" Justice" is a common noun, third person, singular, neuter gender, objec- 
tive case, and the indirect object of teach. Teach is followed by two objectives 



ANALYSIS AND PARSING 

In long journeys, ask your master leave to give ale to your 
horses. — Swift. 

God called the light day, and the darkness he called night. 

While they promise themselves liberty, they themselves are 
the servants of corruption. 



§ LI.] CASE INDEPENDENT. 159 

He fashioned it with a graving tool, after he had made it a 
molten calf. 

He allowed his son the third part of his inheritance. 
His son was allowed the third part of his inheritance. 

Section LI. 

CASE INDEPENDENT. 

The form of the independent case is usually that of the nominative, but its 
relations and office are quite different. 

Rule XII. 
446. A noun joined with a participle, standing uncon- 
nected with the subject or predicate of a sentence, is in the 
case absolute or independent ; as, " The oration having 
been spoken, the assembly was dismissed." * 

REMARKS. 

1. The noun independent may have adjectives and modifying adjuncts. 

2. In analyzing, the case absolute or independent, with the participle and 
other modifying words, is an abridged expression, which may be formed into 
a complete sentence, by substituting a verb for the participle, and supplying 
other necessary words; as, " Tarquinius reigning," "Pythagoras came into 
Italy." Tarquinius reigning, is an abridged expression, and is equivalent to 
while Tarquinius was reigning 

ANALYSIS AND PARSING. 

Model. 

Sentence. — Mr. Welch's health being impaired, he was advised to try the effect 
of a warm climate. 
Analyzed. — " He," is the subject ; " was advised," &c, is the modified 
predicate. " Mr. Welch's health being impaired," is an abridged expression, 
equivalent to, " since Mr. Welch's health was impaired." 



* A noun having no grammatical connection with the subject or predicate 
of a sentence, when joined with a participle is usually said to be in the case 
absolute, but when it is the name of an object addressed, it is said to be in the 
case independent. As either term indicates the fact that the noun is not gram- 
matically connected with the leading parts of the sentence, it is deemed 
immaterial which term is employed. 



160 SYNTAX. [§ LI. 

• 

Parsed. — "Mr. Welch's," is a complex noun, third person, singular, pos 
sessive case, and governed by health. Rule VIII. 

"Health," is a common noun, third person, singular, and in the case inde- 
pendent, joined with the participal being impaired. Rule, " A noun joined 
with & participle" &c. 

" Being impaired," is a present passive participle of the verb to impair, and 
belongs to health. The other words may be parsed according to previous 
models. 

SENTENCES. 

The sun rising, the darkness disappears. 

Jesus had conveyed himself away, the multitude being in that 
place. 

We being exceedingly tossed, they lightened the ship. 

Edwards walked along with us, I eagerly assisting to keep 
up the conversation. 

Johnson appearing to be in a reverie, Mr. Edwards address- 
ed himself to me. 

The preliminaries being settled, we proceeded on our 
business. 

Rule XIII. 

447. Nouns and Pronouns denoting persons or things 
addressed, and nouns in abrupt and exclamatory expressions, 
are in the case independent. 

PARSING. 

O light of Trojans and support of Troy ! O sacred city ! 
O valiant heroes ! Religion ! what treasure divine ! 

Your fathers! — where are they? and the prophets, do they 
live forever? 

The name of a procession ! what a great mixture of indepen- 
dent ideas of persons, habits, tapers, orders, motions, sounds, 
does it contain ! 

O happy we ! Miserable they S Me miserable ! me ! 
Ah me ! 



§ LIT.j PRONOUNS. 161 



REMARK. 

Names, titles, captions, and signatures, standing unconnected, are abridged 
expressions, to which, in analyzing and parsing, such words can be added as 
are necessary to complete a sentence. 

EXAMPLES. 

The Spectator ; that is, this book is entitled the Spectator. Rule V. ; 
Chapter IV. ; that is, this is Rule V., &c. Henry Martyn ; that is, the memoir 
of Henry Martyn. Spectator, Rule V., Chapter IV., are strictly parts of sen- 
tences, and can be parsed as nouns in the nominative after the verbs. 

REVIEW. 

What are the rules for nouns in the independent case ? Give some exam- 
ples under each. In what case are the nouns in the following expressions ? 
" liberty ! " "0 my country ! " " Our work being finished, we will play." 
Repeat the rule for the objective case ; for two objectives. Give examples under 
each. Repeat the rules for the nominative case ; for the possessive case ; for 
the objective case ; for the independent case. What rule is applicable to the 
nouns, in such expressions as the following ; " I am busy every day ; " " he has 
been absent six weeks ; " " six rods wide ; " " ten feet deep ; " " much every 
way; " "the book is worth a dollar ; " "it cost me money; " "he is like hi3 
father." 



Section LIL 

PEON OUNS. 

Rule XIV. 

448." Pronouns must agree with their antecedents and 
words for which they stand, in gender, number, and per- 
son; as, "Thou who speakest." "They went their way." 

REMARKS. 

1. Pronouns which refer to two or more nouns, when the objects are 
taken together, must be in the plural number ; as, " George and Thomas excel 
in their studies." 

2. Pronouns which refer to two or more singular nouns, connected by or or 
nor must be in the singular number ; as, " Neither James nor John is diligent 
in his studies ; " not their studies. 

3. When the nouns connected are of different persons, the first person is 
preferred to the second, and the second to the third. 

4. The pronoun "it" often refers to nouns without regard to number, gen 
der or person ; to infinitives, to clauses, and even to whole paragraphs. 

14* 



162 SYNTAX. [§ LII. 

"It" is frequently redundant, or is used indefinitely ; and when so used ; 
it may be parsed in apposition with the infinitive or clause following ; as, " It 
is the mark of a generous spirit to forgive injuries;" the proper subject of the 
verb is, " to forgive injuries" and "it" is redundant, or unnecessary to the 
sense ; but such a usage is authorized by the best writers. 

5. The pronoun whatever or whatsoever is sometimes used for the sake of 
emphasis ; as, " No ground whatever ; " when used in this manner, it may be 
treated as an adjective belonging to a noun understood ; as, " No prudence 
whatever," that is, " no prudence, whatever prudence may exist, can deviate 
from this scheme." 

6. The pronouns himself itself themselves, &c, are used in the nominative 
or objective case, and are frequently a mere repetition for the sake of empha- 
sis, and in many instances are to be parsed in apposition with some noun or 
pronoun expressed or understood ; as, " He himself said it." 

7. " What " is sometimes used adverbially in the sense of partly ; as, " What 
with the war ; " u what with the sweat," &c. 

8. " What " is often improperly used for " that; " as, " They will not be 
lieve but what I have been entirety to blame. 

9. Every relative must have an antecedent to which it refers, either ex- 
pressed or implied ; as, " Who is partial to others, is so to himself." In this 
sentence, " who " is used indefinitely, referring to some word not expressed ; 
as, " The man who," or " any person who," &c. 

10. The relative that, may refer either to persons or things ; but it is gene- 
rally used in preference to who or which, in the following instances : 

i. After an adjective in the superlative degree ; as, " Humility is one of 
the most amiable virtues that we can possess. " Which," in this sentence, 
would sound harsh and disagreeable. 

ii. After the word same belonging to the noun which immediately precedes 
the relative ; as, " They are the same persons thai we saw yesterday." 

in. After " who," used interrogatively or after an antecedent introduced hy 
it ; as, " Who that is prudent, would conduct in such a manner ;" " It is you that 
must bear the responsibility ; not 1." 

IV. When the antecedent consists of two or more words taken conjointly, 
one referring to a person, and the other to a thing ; as, " My memory fondly 
clings to the dear friends and country that I have left." 

11. The relative frequently refers to a whole clause ; as, "You have over- 
come envy with glory, which is very difficult." 

12. Two relatives occurring in different clauses of a compound sentence 
should be the same ; as, " It is remarkable, that Holland, against which the war 
was undertaken, and that in the very beginning was reduced to the brink of 
ruin, lost nothing." " Which " should be used instead of " that." 

13. The relative which is appropriately used to refer to the words " child " 
and " children." " Which " refers to persons, when used to designate one of 
two individuals : as, " Which of the two?" 



§ lii.] pronouns. 163 

14. When there are antecedents of different persons to which a relative in 
the nominative case refers, it is the general rule that the relative may agree 
with either ; as, " I am the Lord that make or makeih all things." It is better in 
most cases to place the relative as near as possible to the word to which it re- 
fers ; thus, instead of the expression, " I am the Lord who command you," 
it is better to say, " I who command you am the Lord." 

15. Sometimes the relative precedes the clause to which it refers, without 
ambiguity in the sense " There was, therefore, which is all we assert, a course 
of life pursued by them different from that which they before led." 

ANALYSIS AND PARSING. 

In parsing the pronoun, inquire, what does it stand in place of? how de- 
clined ? how governed ? what is the rule for its agreement ? what for its gov- 
ernment ? 

The little bill must be paid, but I confess it alarms me. The 
expense of my son here, is greater than I ever imagined. 
Although his company is almost all the pleasure I have in life, 
yet I should not have brought him, if I had known the expense. 

The cookery, and the manner of living here, which you know 
Americans were taught by their masters to dislike, are more 
agreeable to me than you can imagine. 

It is the care of a very great part of mankind to conceal their 
indigence from the rest ; they support themselves by temporary 
expedients, and every day is lost in contriving for the morrow. 

TO BE CORRECTED. 

Rebecca took goodly raiment, and put them upon Jacob. 

One should not think too favorably of themselves. 

The multitude eagerly pursue pleasure, as its chief good. 

The council were divided in its sentiments. 

The moon appears, but the light is not his own. 

The men which seek wisdom will find him. 

One cannot be too careful of their reputation. 

My brother and I are employed in their proper business. 

George and Charles are diligent in his studies. 

Neither James nor John has gained to themselves much 
credit. 

Each of the sexes should be kept within their particular 
bounds. 



164 SYNTAX. [§LIII 

Can any one, on their entrance into the world, be fully secure 
that they shall not be deceived ? 

They which seek wisdom will certainly find her. 

The child whom we have just seen is wholesomely fed. 

REVIEW. 

What is the general rule for the agreement of pronouns ? Explain the mean- 
ing of this rule. When two or more nouns are connected by and, in what 
number must the pronoun be which refers to them ? If nouns are connected 
by or or nor, what must be the number of the pronoun referring -to them ? 
Repeat the rules for the construction of the relative. What kind of a pronoun 
is what f How is it treated in parsing ? Ans. Generally, as a compound pro- 
noun, equivalent to that which or those which. 

Section LIII. 
ADJECTIVES. 

Rule XV. 

449. An adjective oelongs to the noun or pronoun which 
it qualifies or defines. (113.) 

REMABKS. 

1. Adjectives are frequently separated by intervening words from the 
nouns to which they belong ; as, " The day is pleasant.- 1 " Great is the Lord." 
" A river twenty rods wide.'' 1 

2. Adjectives are used to modify infinitives, parts of clauses, and whole 
propositions ; as, " To see the sun is pleasant; 11 " to advance was difficult; 11 
■ "to retreat hazardous. 11 

3. Adjectives are used to modify both the action of the verb, and its subject ; 
as, " The wind was blowing fresh ;" " he grew old in the service of his coun- 
try." 

The difference between an adverb and an adjective in such a connection, 
may be illustrated by the following examples : 

He feels warm — adjective. 

He feels warmly the insult offered him — adverb. 

She looks cold — adjective. 

She looks coldly on him — adverb. 

Adjectives of this kind frequently follow those verbs for which the verb 
"be" might be substituted; as, The rose smells sweet; that is, is sweet. 
" Sweet" in this connection is an adjective. How sweet the hay smells, [is.] 
The apple tastes sour, [is.] 

4. Adjectives are sometimes used to modify other adjectives ; as, " Deep 



§ LIII.] ADJECTIVES. 165 

blue," " a witch hazel mineral rod," "pale red." Several adjectives are some- 
times joined to a single noun ; as, " Liverpool deep blue earthen pitchers." 

5. The adjective is often used alone, the noun with which it agrees being 
understood; as, " TJie brave" " the righteous ," " the beautiful." 

6 The adjective is sometimes used indefinitely, without direct reference 
to any noun ; as, " To be vnse and good, is to be great and noble.'''' A -noun 
however, can generally be supplied in such instances ; as, " For one to be 
^rise, is for one to be great" &c. 

7. The expressions two first, first two, are both authorized by good usage.* 

8. An adjective is sometimes used to modify a noun and another adjec- 
tive ; as, " A poor old man." 

9. Adjectives are sometimes improperly used for adverbs; as, "Miserable 
poor," for " miserably poor ;" " excellent well," for " excellently w -ell ;" "he be- 
haved himself conformable to that great example ;" it should be conformably to. 

" He acted agreeable to my advice." It should be agreeably to, because 
agreeably shows the manner of acting ; but, Agreeable to my promise / now 
write,is correct, as will appear by analyzing : " I now write, this is agreeable to," 
&c. ; agreeable does not show the manner of writing, but qualifies the clause, 
" I noio twite." Much care is necessary to avoid errors of this kind. The 
true meaning of the sentence should be sought by a careful and rigid analysis. 

Comparison of Adjectives. 

10. The comparative degree generally refers to two objects distinct from 
each other ; as, " the sun is brighter than the moon." 

11. The superlative refers to objects belonging to the same class, some 
times to two only, but more commonly to more than two ; as, " Sirius is the 
brightest of the fixed stars." 

It would be incorrect to say, " Sirius is brighter than a fixed star," be- 
cause it would imply that Sirius is not a fixed star It should be compared 
with a single object of the kind distinct from itself, thus ; " Sirius is brighter 
than Arcturus," is correct. 

It would also be incorrect to say, " Sirius is the brightest of the planets," 
because it would imply that Sirius is a planet. 

It is incorrect to say, " Solomon was the wisest of the Roman kings," be- 
cause he did not belong to that class of kings. But it is correct to say, " Sol- 
omon was wiser than any Roman king," for the reason already mentioned. 

12. Comparative and superlative degrees are also incorrectly used in in- 
stances like the following : " He is of all others, the most insensible ;" it should 
be, " he is the most insensible of all;" iL the vice of covetousness enters deepest 
into the soul of man of any other ;" it should be, "deeper than any other ." " Tbe 

# The question whether the numerals two, three, four, should stand before 
the words first or last, or whether first or last should stand before the numerals, 
does not appear to be settled by usage. There are good authorities on both 
sides. Grammarians generally favor the use of first and last, before the nu 
meral. When objects are spoken of in pairs, trijjlets, &c, it is manifestly 
proper to pLoce the numeral last. 



166 SYNTAX. [§ LIII. 

weakest of the two ;" it should be, " the weaker of the two." " The elder of the 
three ; " it should be, " the eldest of the three." 

13. The superlative, however, is admissible where two things are compar- 
ed, if there is no ambiguity from such a use ; as, " The weakest of the two, or 
the weaker of the two." 

14. Double comparatives and superlatives should be avoided ; as, " A more 
serener temper ; " " the most straitest sect." 

15. In expressing a comparison, if both nouns relate to the same thing, the 
article should not be prefixed to the latter ; if to different things it should not 
be omitted ; as, " He is a much better general than statesman." 

16. The word such is often improperly used for so; as, " He was such an 
extravagant person ;" it should be so extravagant. 

Position of Adjectives. 

17. Adjectives are usually placed before the nouns to which they belong ; 
as, " A generous man." 

18. The following are exceptions to this general rule : 

i. When the adjective is limited by some word or adjunct following it, it 
stands after its noun; as, "Food convenient for me." "A rule, a foot long." 
ii. When the adjective expresses a title; as, "Alexander, the Great," it 
follows its noun. 

in. Sometimes several adjectives belonging to one noun are placed after 
it ; as, " A prince learned., wise, and brave." 

iv. An adjective used emphatically to introduce a sentence is often sep- 
arated from its noun by intervening words ; as, "Great is the Lord." 

v. When an adjective is preceded by an adverb, it generally follows its 
noun ; as, " A man truly wise." 

vi. The definitive all, is often separated from its noun by the ; as, "All the 
people." " All," sometimes stands after several nouns, to impart energy to 
the sentence; as, " Ambition, interest, honor, all concurred." 

vii. All adjectives are separated from their nouns by " a," when they are 
preceded by " so," or " as ; " as, " So wise a man." " As good a man." 

ANALYSIS AND PARSING. 

The young blood of modern literature has put new life into 
the literature of the dead languages. 

All the features of a great heroic age, — from which Euro- 
pean civilization dates, and political and domestic order takes its 
rise, stand forth in living reality. 

The encumbered oar scarce leaves the hostile coast, 
Through purple billows and a floating host. 
None were banished except the thirty tyrants. 
I have not seen him these ten years. 



§ LIU.] ADJECTIVES. 167 

That sort of books was a valuable present. 

These studies were the delight of his declining years. 

To die for one's country is sweet and becoming. To restrain 
anger is excellent. To excel in knowledge is honorable. The 
flame burns bright and clear. Keen blows the wind, and 
piercing is the cold. A great many stars are visible in a clear 
night. A light shineth in the path of the upright. 

SENTENCES TO BE CORRECTED. 

A new barrel of flour. A clear spring of water. A green 
load of wood. A new pair of boots. I have received them 
books which you sent me. I can never think so mean of him. 
They wandered about solitarily and distressed. She reads 
proper, writes neat, and composes accurate. They lived con- 
formable to the rules of prudence. He was such an extrava- 
gant man, that he soon wasted his property. I never saw such 
large trees. Such a bad temper is seldom found. A tree fifty 
foot high. Twenty ton of hay. Two shilling a pound. 

'T is more easier to build two chimneys than to maintain one. 
The tongue is like a race horse, which runs the faster the lesser 
weight it carries. The nightingale sings ; hers is the most 
sweetest voice in the grove. The Most Highest hath created 
us for his glory and our own happiness. The Supreme Being 
is the most wisest, the most powerfulest, and the most best of 
beings. Virtue confers the supremest dignity on man, and 
should be his chief desire. His assertion was more true than 
that of his opponent ; nay, the words of the latter were most 
untrue. His work is perfect ; his brother's more perfect ; and 
his father's the most perfect of all. Eve was the fairest of all 
her daughters. Profane swearing is, of all other vices, the 
most inexcusable. A talent of this kind would, perhaps, prove 
the likeliest of any other to succeed. He spoke with so much 
propriety, that I understood him the best of all the others 
who spoke on the subject. Such distinguished virtues seldom 
occur. 



168 SYNTAX. [§ LIV 

Section LIV. 

PRONOMINAL ADJECTIVES* 

Rule XVI. 

450. Pronominal adjectives limit the nouns to which they 
belong, or are used alone as pronouns ; as, This d&j,few 
men, both men, many people, the latter day, some think, few 
come, &c. 

REMARKS. 

Each other. One another. 

1. These are elliptical expressions and may be explained as follows : 

" Righteousness and peace have kissed each other ; " that is, each has kissed 
the other. 

" We ought to love one another ; " that is, one ought to love, &c. 

" When ye come together to eat, tarry one for another; " it might be, for one 
another. 

" Exhort one, another daily ; " let each exhort the other, &c.f 

2. The adjectives this and these refer to what is near or present ; but the 
adjectives that and those refer to what is more remote or absent ; as, " This man," 
that is, the man who is present or near ; " That man," that is, the man who is 
at a distance or absent. 

8. The adjectives each, every, either, require, in construction, the noun, 
pronoun or verb, to be in the singular number ; as, " Every tree is known by 
its fruit." This rule is often violated, as in the following examples : " Let each 
fulfil their part ; " it should be his. 

" Every " is sometimes joined to a noun, preceded by a numeral adjective ; 
as, " Every six months" " Every hundred years." As the noun and the 
numeral are together merely a complex term expressing a definite period, such 
examples do not in reality make an exception to the rule. 

4. Even when several nouns are connected as the common subjects of a 
verb, if each one is limited by each or every, expressed or understood, the 
verb must be singular ; as, " Every leaf, every twig, and every drop of water, 
teems with life." 

5. The words means, news, amends, &c, formerly plural nouns, are now 
used in the singular number, and take adjectives agreeing with them in the 

* This class of words, in nearly every instance where they are used alone, 
admit of having a noun supplied ; but as it would be obviously improper to 
supply a noun in some cases, it is better to treat them as pronouns wnen they 
are used alone. 

f The expressions, each other, cme another, are sometimes termed reciprocal 
pronouns. 



§ LIT.] PRONOMINAL ADJECTIVES. 169 

plural ; as, " This means," not these means. " One means or a means," not 
one mean. 

6. The pronominal both, is often used in the place of two nouns, con- 
nected together, or of a plural noun comprising only two individuals, the 
subject or object in a sentence ; as, " Abraham took sheep and oxen, and 
gave them to Abimelech, and both of them made a covenant." 

" Both " is sometimes used in apposition with a pronoun to give emphasis 
to the expression ; as, " He forgave them both.''' " I will teach you both." 

7. The pronominals former and latter ; also the one — and the other, may 
properly represent nouns or clauses in contrast, when they are near in con- 
struction and occasion no obscurity.^ 

8. One is sometimes used in the plural ; as, " The great ones of the world ; " 
"the little ones." "One" used without a noun is often used indefinitely, 
signifying persons in general ; as, " One ought to pity the distresses of man- 
kind." 

9. None is used in both numbers ; as, " None is," or " None are." "None 
that go unto her return again." 

10. Either is sometimes used for " each ; " as, " Two thieves were cruci- 
fied — on either side one." 

11. " Them " used for "these" or "those" is a vulgarism; as, " Them 
books." " Them people." It should be, " these books," " those people." 

ANALYSIS AND PARSING. 

m Pronominal Adjectives. 

One day Alonzo made a discovery which startled him. 

A great many people think that the Sabbath ends at sunset. 

The boy hoped he had made some impression. 

You know very well that such an expedition, with such com- 
panions, will not be keeping holy the Sabbath day. 

Every feeling of gratitude is obliterated by one single inter- 
ference with your wicked desires. 

He soon learned, that it was one thing to see that his feelings 
were wrong, and another thing to feel right. 

These omissions were more frequent than he imagined. 

And the eyes of them both were opened. 

Pronominal Adjectives used as Pronouns. 
And he went after the man of Israel into the tent, and thrust 
both of them through. 

* The injudicious use of former and latter and other substitutes are a great 
blemish in Campbell's Philosophy of Rhetoric. — Webster. 

15 



170 SYNTAX. [§ LIV. 

The same is equally true of the past. 

In the evening he was occupied with some one of these en- 
joyments, and the next day he was planning another. 

This he could not but strongly shrink from. 

Let others serve whom they will ; as for me and my house, 
'we will serve the Lord. 

The dialogue between conscience and his heart was going on 
all the time ; the latter finally prevailed. 

Many shall come in my name, saying, I am Christ, and shall 
deceive many. 

Jubal was the father of such as dwell in tents. 

I cannot go beyond the word of the Lord my God, to do less 
or more. 

Let each fulfil his part 

TO BE CORRECTED. 

These kind of indulgences. Those sort of favors. I have 
been waiting this two hours. Do you see those books lying on 
this table ? These men that stand yonder are soldiers. That 
breeze is refreshing. Where are these book^ which you took 
from the desk ? Both the sun, moon, and planets, turn on their 
axis. Dp you see them people walking in the park ? 

Rule XVII. 

451. The article an or a, is used before nouns in the 
singular number only, individually or collectively. The 
is used before nouns in both numbers; as, "A man;" 
" a thousand ;" " the houses ;" " the sea.' 



?? 



REMARKS. 

1. Articles, when used, should be applied according to their signification, 
and as the sense requires. They are often properly omitted. 

2. When the sense of words is sufficiently certain by the construction, the 
article may be omitted. 

3. When the signification of the noun is general, and requires no limita- 
tion, the article is omitted; as, "Honor to whom honor is due." "Man is 
mortal." 



§ LIV.] PRONOMINAL ADJECTIVES. 171 

4. When two or more nouns occur in the same construction, the article 
may be used with the first and omitted with the rest ; as, " There were many 
hours both. of the night and day," or the day It is often used, however, in 
such instances for the sake of emphasis. 

5. When two or more adjectives are used to express different qualities of 
the same object, the article may be used with the first, and omitted with the 
rest; as, " A large and convenient dwelling," referring to a single dwelling. 
But if it is intended to express qualities of different objects, the article may be 
used before each; as, ".4 large and a convenient dwelling," referring to two 
dwellings. 

6. When the two nouns after a comparative refer to the same person or 
thing, the article should be omitted before the second ; as, " He is a better sol- 
dier than scholar." The use of the article before " scholar," would change the 
meaning entirely ; it then would mean, " He is a better soldier than a 
scholar is." 

7. A nice distinction in the sense is sometimes made by the use or omis- 
sion of the article before the words little and few; as, "He has a little rever- 
ence." This means that he has reverence in a slight degree. " He has little 
reverence." This implies a doubt whether he has any. 

8. An or a is sometimes used in the sense of each or every ; as, " Twice a 
day." 

9. The article is often used to modify the meaning of an adjective ; as, " A 
hundred men ;" " a large number of men ;" " a few things." 

10. u The " is used before comparatives and superlatives; as, " The more 
— the better ;" M An estate, the largest in the city." 

11. " The" is used before the antecedent of restrictive clauses ; as, " The 
sight which ive saw." 

12. " An or a " sometimes occurs between the adjective " many," and a sin- 
gular noun; as, " Full ma,ny a gem ;" "many a youth." 

TO BE CORRECTED. 

Show how the articles are misapplied in the following sentences. 

Reason \va3 given to a man to control his passions. A man 
is the noblest work of creation. He is a much better writer 
than a reader. The king has conferred on him a title of a duke. 
Wisest and best men sometimes commit errors. At best his 
gift was but a poor offering. He has been censured for giving 
a little attention to his business. 

REVIEW. 

W T hat is the rule for the agreement of adjectives ? What is an adjective ? 
Does the term adjective include the article ? Are adjectives ever separated 
from their nouns ? Give some examples. Can adjectives qualify Infinitives t 



172 SYNTAX. [§ LV~. 

clauses or sentences ? Give examples. In the expression, that you are mistaken 
is certain, which is the adjective ? To what does it belong ? In the expres- 
sion, she looks pale, which is the adjective ? What does it appear to modify ? 
Give other examples of the same kind. Do adjectives modify other adjectives ? 
Give some examples. Show wherein the following expressions are incorrect. 
He was extreme prodigal ; he writes neat; the stream flows rapid; the wind blows 
violent. Eepeat the rule and notes for the agreement and use of the article. Is 
there any difference in the following expressions? Feio people, a few people. 
What is the rule for pronominal adjectives ? Explain the phrases each other, 
and one another. What is the difference in use between the pronominals this 
and that f What is said of each, every, either ? What should be the number 
of an adjective to agree with means or news ? What is the rule for the agree- 
ment of the article an or a f of the f Mention some of the rules for the omis- 
sion or the use of the articles. 



Section LV. 
VEKBS. 

THE INFINITIVE MODE. 

Rule XVIII. 

452. A verb in the Infinitive mode is generally used to 
limit the meaning of a verb, noun, or adjective ; as, " I 
hope to succeed;" "a desire to improve;" " anxious to 
hear" 

REMARKS. 

A verb in the Infinitive may also limit the meaning of 

1. As or than ; as " He is so conceited as to disdain to have any thing to do 
with books ; " "he desired nothing more than to know his imperfections."* 

2. Adverbs; as " The rope is strong enough to suspend a ton ; " "I know not 
how to address you." 

3. Prepositions ; as, " What went ye out for to see ; "f " my friend is about 
to take his departure." 

4. The Infinitive is also used independently ; as, " To say the least he has 
erred in judgment ;" " but to proceed with our argument." 



* The Infinite after as or than, more properly limits a verb understood $ as, 
"He desired nothing more than he desired to know," &c. 

f This form of expression is now obsolete ; it occurs in the Scriptures and 
in ancient writings. 



§ LV.] INFINITIVE MODE. 173 

5. When the Infinitive denotes purpose or design, it is frequently preceded 
by the phrase in order, but this phrase is often omitted. 

6. The phrase to be sure is often used adverbially, in the sense of surely, 
or certainly. 

SPECIAL RULE. 

458. The Infinitive mode has sometimes a subject in 
the objective case ; as, " I believe the sun to be the cen- 
tre of the solar system ; " "I know him to be a man of 
veracity." 

REMARKS. 

1. This form of expression, far less common in our language than in the 
Latin and Greek, is equivalent to a subordinate clause introduced by that; 
u I believe him to be dishonest," that is, I believe that he is dishonest. 

2. The Infinitive with its subject is sometimes introduced by for; as, 
"For him to die was gain." In such expressions the infinitive and the words 
connected with it, form the subject of the verb in the sentence, " For him 
to die " is the subject of was. 

Note. — The use of the Infinitive as the subject, object, and predicate nomi- 
native has been explained under the Rules relating to these subjects. For the 
nature and properties of the Infinitive, see Sec. xxi, 255, 256. 

ANALYSIS AND PARSING. 

He was willing to risk all, for the excitement of a new revo- 
lution. 

He delivered his brother Alfonzo into their hands, to be re- 
cognized as the lawful heir of the crown. 

Not far from the city of Avila, they caused a scaffold to be 
erected, of sufficient elevation to be easily seen from the sur- 
rounding country. 

A manifesto was then read, exhibiting in glowing colors the 
tyrannical conduct of the king, and the consequent determination 
to depose him. 

It would be an unprofitable task to attempt to unravel all the 
fine-spun intrigues, by which the Marquis Yillena contrived to 
defeat every attempt at an ultimate accommodation. 

The abject mind of Henry was content to purchase repose, 
even by the most humiliating sacrifice. 

15* 



174 SYNTAX, [§LV. 

Be not so greedy of popular applause, as to forget that the 
same breath which blows up a fire may blow it out again, 

I understand him better, than to suppose he will relinquish 
his design. 

EULE XIX. 

454. The verbs which follow bid, dare, durst, hear, feel, 
let, make, need, Bee, and their participles, are used in the 
Infinitive without the sign to f as" He bid me go. 5 ' 

Note. — The verbs watch, behold, hww, observe, have, command, find, and 
some others, are occasionally followed by the infinitive without the sign to. 

ANALYSIS AND PARSING. 

The name of Henry makes them leave me desolate. 

My followers' base and ignominious treasons make me betake 
to my heels. 

Dare any man be so bold to sound retreat or parley, when I 
command them kill ? — Shakspeare. 

Hark ! I hear the herald angels say. 

And the multitude wondered when they saw the lame walk 
and the blind see. 

He had dared to think for himself. — Coleridge. 

The haughty priests of learning banished from the schools 
all who had dared draw water from the living fountain. — Cole- 
ridge. 

I found my friend express much satisfaction for the bargains 
he had made. — Steele. 

TO BE CORRECTED. 

You ought not walk too hastily. I need not to solicit him to 
d© a kind action. I have seen some very young persons to con- 
duct themselves very indiscreetly. And the multitude wonder- 
ed when they saw the lame to walk, and the blind to see. 

* The sign to is retained after these verbs when used in the passive form* 
The sign is also sometimes retained after make and dare. 



§ LV.J PARTICIPLES. 17 > 

PARTICIPLES. 
Rule XX. 

455. Participles belong to nouns or pronouns, which th^v 
limit or explain. 

Present and compound participles govern the same case 
as the verbs from which they are derived. 

REMARKS. 

1. The participle is often used as a noun, either with or without an article : 
but when so used the present or compound participle of a transitive verb pc r- 
forms the office of a verb and a noun at the same time ; as, "In return h -r 
your inviting me." 

2. When preceded by the article, the present participle,in most cases, mn -f 
be followed by " of;" as, " The gaining of wisdom ;" " The supplying of q\, 
wants." Expressions like the following are incorrect : " The preaching repeir 
ance ;" " The loriting an essay." "Of" should be used after " preaching," &c : 

3. The reverse of this rule should also be observed, namely ; that the " of" 
should not be employed after the participle, when it is not preceded by t"..o 
article; as, "By preaching of repentance." It should be, "by the preachh .- 
of repentance," or, "by preaching repentance." In general, both the artic '• 
and the preposition should be used, or both should be omitted, except who* 
the ellipsis of the preposition is obvious, or where another construction is re- 
quired by the sense ; as, " The advising or attempting to procure an insurrec- 
tion." In this sentence the infinitive is used after the participial noun. 

4. Present and compound participles often perform the office of a verb aiv 
noun at the same time ; as, " He was displeased with the king's having bestow- 
ed the office upon a worthless man." In this sentence, the compound parti- 
ciple is used as a noun and governs " king's." It also, in the office of a verb, 
governs the noun " office," in the objective case. 

5. Participles often belong to a clause or a part of a sentence ; as, " Owing 
to the bad state of the roads, he was detained a day beyond the time of his ap- 
pointment." In this sentence, " owing " agrees with the whole sentence, "he 
was," &c. The words concerning, accwdmg, respecting, touching, &c, are 
generally considered prepositions. They are, however, derived from verbs, 
and in most instances refer to some statement in the sentence. 

6. Participles are sometimes used indefinitely, without reference to any 

* This rule is often violated by our best writers, and to make it universal is 
to assume an authority much too dictatorial. The expression, " The making 
a will," is perfectly good English. — Webster. 



176 SYNTAX. [§ LV. 

noun or pronoun expressed ; as, " It is not possible to act otherwise, consider 
ing the weakness of our nature." " Generally speaking, his conduct was very 
honorable." 

For other uses of the participle, see Sec. xxiv. 

7. Adjectives derived from verbs, and having the form of participles, are 
called verbal ox participial adjectives. 

ANALYSIS AND PARSING. 

And they, continuing daily with one accord in the temple, 
and breaking bread from house to house, did eat their meat with 
gladness and singleness of heart, praising God, and having 
favor with all the people. 

He has left town for Ireland without taking leave of either 
of us. 

Having a little time upon my hands, I could not think of be- 
stowing it better than in writing an epistle to the Spectator. 

I cannot forbear troubling you with a letter upon that subject. 

We considered man as belonging to societies ; societies as 
formed of different ranks ; and different ranks distinguished by 
habits. 

Having been very well entertained by your specimen of clubs, 
I shall take the liberty to furnish you with a brief account of 
such a one as you have not seen. 

TO BE CORRECTED. 

By observing of truth. By the observing truth. By the 
sending proper information. Without the taking pains. With- 
out taking of pains. The changing times and seasons, the re- 
moving and setting up kings, belong to Providence alone. Pov- 
erty turns one's thoughts too much upon the supplying one's 
wants. In tracing of his history, we discover little that is wor- 
thy of imitation. 



§ LVI.J MODES AXD TENSES. 177 

Section LVI. 

MODES. TENSES. 

Rule XXI. 

456. In the use of modes and tenses, a proper regard 
should be paid to their forms and connections. 

MODES. 

1. The indicative mode must be used after conjunctions .which are posi- 
tive and unconditional in their nature ; as, " He is esteemed, because he is gen- 
erous." 

2. The subjunctive mode is used after conjunctions which imply doubt, 
contingency or condition ; as, " If he is expert in business, he will find employ- 
ment." " Suppose we admit this fact." 

3. In general, the form of the verb in the subjunctive, is the same as that 
of the indicative ; but an elliptical form in the second and third person singu- 
lar, should be used in the following instances : 

4. Future contingency is expressed by the omission of the indicative termi- 
nation; as, "If he go," for "if he shall go." "Though he slay me," i. e. 
"though he sliould slay me." "If thou injure another, thou wilt hurt thy- 
self." 

5. Lest and that annexed to a command, are followed by the elliptical form 
of the subjunctive ; as, " Love not sleep lest thou come to poverty." 

6. If, with but following it, when futurity is denoted, requires the elliptical 
form ; as, " If he do but touch the hills they shall smoke." 

7. But when future contingency is not denoted by the subjunctive clause, 
the indicative form is used ; as, " If she is but sincere I am happy." 

TO BE CORRECTED. 

If he acquires riches, they will corrupt his mind, and be use- 
less to others. Though he urges me yet more earnestly, I shall 
not comply, unless he advances more forcible reasons. I shall 
walk in the fields to-day, unless it rains. As the governess 
were present, the children behaved properly. Despise not any 
condition, lest it happens to be your own. Let him that is san- 
guine take heed lest he miscarries. Take care that thou break- 
est not any of the established rules. If he does but intimate his 



178 SYNTAX. [§ LVI, 

desire, it will be sufficient to produce obedience. At the time 
of his return, if he is but expert in the business, he will find em- 
ployment. If he do but speak to display his abilities, he is un- 
worthy of attention. If he be but in health, I am content. If 
thou have promised, be faithful to thy engagement. Though 
he have proved his right to submission, he is too generous to 
exact it. Unless he have improved, he is unfit for the office. 
If thou had succeeded, perhaps thou would not be the happier 
for it. Though thou did injure him, he harbors no resentment. 
Was he ever so great and opulent, this conduct would debase 
him. Was I to enumerate all her virtues, it would look like 
flattery. Though I was perfect, yet I w T ould not presume. 
Unless thou can fairly support the cause, give it up honorably. 
Though thou might have foreseen the clanger, thou could not 
have avoided it. 

TENSES. 

No very definite rules can be given for the proper use of the tenses in all 
cases, except such as are found in the definitions already given in Part III. 
The best rule, which is a very general one, is, to observe strictly what forms 
of the verb the sense requires. 

It may be useful, however, to give a few examples of the manner in which 
the tenses are improperly employed. 

Errors in Forms. 

I come is very improperly used for I came. 
I done is very improperly used for I did. 
I begun is very improperly used for I began. 

Done and begun are perfect participles, which are improperly used for the 
imperfect tense. 

The river has froze over ; it should be lias frozen. 
The school has began ; it should be has begun. 
The horse was drove hard; it should be was driven. 
The thief has stole my watch ; it should be has stolen. 
Froze, began, drove, stole, are forms of the imperfect tense, which are im 
properly used for the perfect participles, frozen, begun, driven, &c. 

The expressions "had rather," and " had better," though anomalous, are 
well authorized. But " had ought," or " had not ought," commonly contract- 
ed into "had n't ought," is a gross vulgarism. Ought is a defective verb 
used only in the present and imperfect tenses. . 



§ LVI.] TENSES. 179 

Sit, set, lie, lay. 

The verbs sit and lie are often confounded with set and lay. 

The verb to sit, signifies " to repose on a seat." Its principal parts are, 
Pres. sit ; Imper. sat ; Perf. Part. sat. 

The verb to set, when transitive, signifies "to place." The principal parts 
are, Pres. set ; Imp. set ; Perf. Part. set. This verb is also used intransitive- 
ly ; as, ; ' The sun sets." " The moon has set." 

The verb to lie signifies " to repose," " to lie down." Its principal parts are, 
Pres. lie ; Imp. lay ; Perf. Part. lain. There is also a regular verb lie, 
which signifies to utter a falsehood. 

The verb to lay, signifies "to place." Its principal parts are, Pres. lay; 
Imp. laid ; Perf. Part. laid. 

Errors in Connection. 

incorrect. corrected. 

I should be glad if he will write. Would write. 

I have completed the task two days ago. I completed. 

They have resided in Italy till two months ago. They resided. 

His style has formerly been admired. Was formerly admired. 

Next new year's day, I shall be at school six months. I shall have been. 

After we visited London we returned, content and ( After we had visited 

thankful, to our retired habitation. I London, &c. 

TENSES OF THE INFINITIVE MODE. 

457 As a verb in the infinitive mode is strictly nothing more 
than a verbal noun, that is, the name of some action, it will be 
easy to determine which tense of the infinitive should be em- 
ployed, by inquiring whether the action expressed by the 
infinitive refers to past, present, or future time ; for example : 

" I intended to write ; " i. e. I intended writing ; not, I in- 
tended to have written, or, having written, for this expression 
would refer the act to a time before there was an intention to 
act. 

" I hoped to see you ; " not to have seen you. 

" I commanded him to do it ; " not, to have done it, i. e. the 
doing would not be before the command. Hence, in regard to 
verbs of this class the following rule may be observed for the 
use of the infinitive. 

SPECIAL RULE. 

458. After verbs signifying to hope, to intend, to desire, to 



180 SYNTAX. [§ LVII 

command, and the like, the present tense of the infinitive should 

be used ; as, " I hoped to see you." " I desired to hear from my 

friend." 

After verbs of other significations, a strict regard should be paid to the 
time of the action denoted by the infinitive, compared with the tense or time 
of the verb on which it depends. 

TO BE CORRECTED. 

Let the reason be given for the correction made in each instance. 

They laid down to rest. A beggar was setting by the way- 
side. A stone was laying in the street. The tree has laid 
there several days. Let us set down. It is injurious to health 
to set up late nights. He set up, and began to speak. Sin 
layeth at the door. 

It will give our parents much pain to have heard of your mis- 
conduct. They desired to have seen you respected and esteemed, 
but alas ! their hopes have been unexpectedly cut off. They in- 
tended to have devoted you to the service of your country and 
mankind ; but when the sad intelligence reaches them, how 
would they sink under the burden of their disappointment, and 
how will they weep bitter tears, when they have reflected upon 
the happiness they have anticipated, from your advancement 
to an honorable condition in life. I expected to have seen them 
before the news should have reached them, but urgent duties 
will have prevented. 

Section LVII. 

ADVEEBS. 

Rule XXII. 

459. Adverbs generally modify verbs, participles , adjec- 
tives, and other adverbs. 

REMARKS. 

1. Adverbs should generally he placed before adjectives, after verbs in the 
simple form, and frequently between the auxiliary and the verb ; as, " He is 
very anxious \ n "He spoke kindly ; " " He is busily employed,'* 



§ LVTI.J ADVERBS. 181 

This rule is too genenu to be of much service, since the exceptions to it are 
very numerous. The good sense and taste of the writer are generally the safest 
guide in the appropriate use of this class of words. In the following example, 
the position of the adverb depends upon the sense intended ; " We always 
find them ready ; " " "We find them always ready." 

The position of the adverb is right in both instances ; but the meaning con- 
veyed is different. From the first it is not certain that they are always ready, 
as it is asserted in the second expression, but that we always find them so. 

2. Adverbs are sometimes used for adjectives ; as, " The then ministry;" 
u The above discourse j " * " To-morrow morning ; " " The men only." 

Note. — When " only" refers to a noun, it should be placed near it, to 
avoid ambiguity. 

3. Adverbs are sometimes used as nouns ; as, " Until now ; " " Yet a little 
while." 

4. From is sometimes unnecessarily used before whence, thence, hence; as 
" From whence art thou ? " for " whence" &c. 

5. The adverb there often stands at the beginning of a sentence, without 
particular reference to any other word ; as, " There are many who believe," &c. 

6. The word modified by the adverb is sometimes omitted ; as, " I '11 hence 
to London." 

7. Two negatives in the same clause are equivalent to an affirmative; as, 
" Nor did they not perceive," that is, they did perceive. 

8. An adverb sometimes modifies the word a, used in the sense of one ; as, 
"Almost a year; " " not a dollar." 

9. The word but in the sense of only is used as an adverb ; as, ''All are but 
parts of one stupendous whole ; " "I have but one request to make." 

10. As in the sense of so, is an adverb ; " As well ; as much." 

11. The adverb now frequently stands at the beginning of paragraphs, in 
argumentative and familiar discourse, as a general connective, without modify- 
ing any particular word ; as, " Noio, it is evident," &c. 

12. A preposition with its object is sometimes equivalent to an adverb ; as, 
"' In truth," for truly, &c. 

13. Adverbs are not unfrequently absolute ; that is, they qualify no partic- 
ular word, but usually refer to the whole preceding sentence ; as, " Yes, no, 
therefore, then, however," &c, and not unfrequently they are expletives, that 
is, qualify nothing ; as, " Why, well, there," &c. 

14. Adverbs sometimes modify prepositions, adjuncts, phrases, and entire 
clauses ; as, " Just below the surface ; nearly round the world ; I hear almost 
in vain ; independently of these considerations." 

* Such expressions, though not destitute of authority, are exceedingly in- 
elegant and irreconcilable with authority. — Crombie. 

16 



182 SYNTAX. [§LVIII, 

15. The adverbs here, there, and where, are frequently used in the sense of 
hither, thither, whither. 

SENTENCES TO BE ANALYZED AND PARSED. 

. There,* there,* now we have had enough for one lecture. 

Well,* sir, said I, how did you like little Miss ? I hope she 
was fine enough. 

Alas ! madam, said he one day, how few books are there, of 
which one ever can possibly arrive at the last page. — Johnson. 

Well, he brought him home, and reared him at the then Lord 
Valdez's cost. — Coleridge. 

The wall tottered, and had well-nigh fallen right on their 
heads. — Id. 

And not a f vanity is given in vain. 

The women and children only were saved from the confla- 
gration. 

Little children, yet a little while I am with you. 
Stoop down, my thoughts that used to rise, 
Converse a while with death. 

He then, having received the sop, went immediately out. 



Secton LVIII. 

PKEPOSITIONS. 

Rule XXIII. 

460. Prepositions connect words and show the relation 
between them. The object of a preposition must be in the 
objective case. See 123. 

REMARKS. 

1. But, in the sense of except, appears sometimes to be used as a preposi- 
tion ; as, " All but owe." 

* These adverbs are used independently. 

f Not modifies a, which is used in the sense of one. 



§ LVIII.] PREPOSITIONS. 183 

2. Than is sometimes followed by the objectives v-liom and to hick ; as, " Al 
fred, than whom," &c. u Beelzebub, than whom," &c. 

3. The article a is in a few instances employed in the sense of a preposition, 
as, " Simon Peter said, I go a [to] fishing." It is also used for at. 

4. Two or more words combined, are sometimes treated as a compound 
preposition; as, According to, in respect to, in regard to, from above, from be- 
low, as to, as for, over against, instead of, out of, §c. 

5. The words allowing, considering, concerning, during, respecting, silpposing, 
notwithstanding, excepting, past, are sometimes termed verbal prepositions,* and 
also save and except. 

6. In poetry the preposition is sometimes placed after its object ; as, " The 
woods among." And in familiar style sometimes also it stands after its ob- 
ject, as " What is he aiming at?" 

7. Two prepositions, each in a different clause, sometimes have reference to 
the same noun ; as, " I am interested in, and labor for, the promotion of hu- 
man happiness." Expressions of this kind are very common, but cannot be 
considered elegant. A better form can be easily substituted ; as, " I am in- 
terested in the promotion of human happiness, and labor to promote it." 
8. The following are correct examples of the use of prepositions : 

Abandoned to — abhorrence of — abound in — absent from — abstain 
from — beguile of — 

Careful of — careless about — careless of — differ from — discourage from 
— encouragement to — 

Familiar with — interfere with — influence on — impatient at — inspec- 
tion into — partiality to — 

Prejudice against — provide for — suitable to — participate in — con- 
scious of — correspond to — correspond with — 

Derogate from — derogation to — contiguous to — bereave of — difliculty 
in — differ with — - 

Disappointed of — discouragement to — expert in — influence over — in 
faience with — connect with — 

Impatient for — inspection over — partiality for — provide with — provide 
against — suitable for — peculiar to — 

REVIEW. 

Eepeat the general rule for adverbs. With what parts of speech can ad- 
verbs be connected ? What is the use of adverbs ? Do they govern cases ? 
Do they connect clauses ? Do adverbs ever modify prepositions ? Nouns ? 



* Some grammarians prefer to treat this class of words as participles, un 
der all circumstances, agreeing with the whole sentence, or some word under 
stood ; and save and except as verbs in the imperative mode. 



184 SYNTAX. [§ LVIII, 

Articles ? What adverbs are sometimes used independently ? Rule for pre- 
positions ? Remarks. In what sense is hut used as a preposition ? As an 
adverb ? Is but ever an adjective ? A conjunction ? What participles and 
verbs are sometimes considered as prepositions ? Can they be parsed otherwise 
than as prepositions ? 

461. Prepositions are not unfrequently united with other 
words, forming a compound expression, equivalent in meaning 
to a single word ; as, " I looked on Virgil as a majestic writer." 

Looked on is a compound transitive, verb, equivalent in meaning to " regard 
ed," or "considered." It has, like other transitive verbs, a passive form ; as, 
" Virgil was looked on^ &c. 

REMARKS. 

1. Prepositions are sometimes connected with certain verbal adjectives, 
forming what may be termed compound adjectives. The event was unlooked 
for : the measure was uncalled for : he lived neglected and uncaredfor. 

2. Prepositions are often inseparably united with nouns, adjectives, verbs 
adverbs, and with other prepositions ; as, " Afternoon, imprudent, to-day, to- 
morrow. " 

EXERCISE. 

Analyze the sentences and parse the compound verbs. 

We must look out for words as beautiful as can be found. — 
Felton. 

"Words must he looked out for as beautiful as can be found. 

Politeness of manners, and knowledge of the world, should 
principally be looked after in a tutor. — Locke. 

Note. — Some intransitive verbs admit of a passive form, which includes the 
preposition that followed the verb in the active form ; as, 

He referred to the civil war in his remarks. [Active form.] 
The civil war was referred to in his remarks. [Passive form.] 
He sincerely repented of his sins. [Active form.] 
His sins were sincerely repented of [Passive form.] 
He disposed of his property. [Active.] 
His property was disposed of. [Passive.] 



§ LIX.] CONJUNCTIONS. 185 

Section LIX. 
CONJUNCTIONS. 

462. Conjunctions connect words, phrases, adjuncts, or 
sentences ; as, " He reads or writes." " To do wrong and 
to suffer wrong." " In the morning and in the evening." 
" I sought the Lord and he heard me." 

Note. — The list of the principal conjunctions may be found in Part II. 
Their general use has been already illustrated in the analysis of compound 
sentences. 

REMARKS. 

1. Conjunctions unite the words, or phrases, which form the compound 
subjects of a preposition ; also two or more objects of a transitive verb or a pre- 
position. Words united in such relations must, therefore, be in the same case. 
It would be improper to say, "He and me are brothers;" because "me" 
cannot be a part of the compound subject. " You as well as him are accounta- 
ble." "You" and "him" are in different cases, and still both are intended to 
be the subjects of the same verb. It should be, " You as well as he." 

2. The rule given by Murray and copied by many others, "that conjunc- 
tions must connect similar modes and tenses of verbs," is erroneous, as may 
be seen from a few examples. " He neither receives nor can give delight." — 
Johnson. "There may be and usually is an ellipsis of the verb." — Webster. 
" For thou wast slain and hast redeemed us." — Rev. V. " So that neither angel, 
man, nor world, could stand, or can stand." 

3. Writers have sometimes fallen into errors by observing this rule too strict- 
ly. " If I sliGuld ask any one whether ice and water were two distinct species 
of things." "Were" is in the imperfect subjunctive, to correspond with 
should ask, in the first clause. But the inquiry is not intended to be whether 
"ice and water were," but "whether they are," &c. The present tense is 
used in expressing facts " which exist at all times," or " general truths." 
" The alchemists supposed that bodies were composed of salt, sulphur and 
mercury." It should be are composed. " They said that man was an ani 
mal." It should be, is an animal. 

4. After than, there is usually an ellipsis of some word or adjunct necessa- 
ry to a complete sentence ; as, " He that cometh after me is mightier than 
I ; " that is, than I am. " He loves his money more than his honor ; " that is f 
more than he loves his honor. Sometimes this conjunction appears to assume 
the office of a preposition, and to govern an objective case. This use was 
mentioned under prepositions. See 460. 

5. There is often an ellipsis of some word, phrase, or clause after the con- 
junctions, yet, though, if, and as ; as, " False flew the shaft, though pointed 
well ; " that is, though it was pointed, &c. " He was treated as a son." 

16* 



186 SYNTAX. [§ LXX. 

6. The word as, has various offices and uses. 

I. " As," is used as an adverb in the sense of equally ; as, " As good.'* 
" As great." " As well." In such instances it usually corresponds with 
another as, in the same clause ; as, " I have seen it as well as you." 

ii. " As," is used as a connective, — 1, to unite clauses or words express- 
ing comparison, equality, or contrast ; as, " I believe it is as you represent." 
— 2, to connect words in apposition ; as, " The government sent him as com- 
missioner." — 3, to join adjectives or participles to the words which they 
modify ; as, " I regard him as ruined and lost beyond recovery." As appears 
to be used as a relative pronoun in the nominative or objective case; as, 
" Give me such information as you possess." " The books are such as will 
please him." In the first instance "as," is the object of "possess." In the 
second, it is the subject of "will please." In such instances, however, that 
which, or those which, can generally be supplied, and "as" may be treated as 
a conjunction. Some prefer this method of analyzing sentences of this kind. 
" As " is sometimes combined with prepositions ; as, " As to." " As for." In 
this as in some other use it is difficult to explain the office of this word. 

7. "As," is also sometimes combined with the conjunctions if though, 
and likewise with what; as, " As if," " as though," "what if," "what though." 

8. After expressions which denote doubt, fear, or denial, the conjunction 
that should be employed ; as, " I do not doubt that he is honest." It is a very 
common fault to use lest, or but that, instead of that in such a connection , 
as, " I do not doubt but that he will succeed." " I fear lest he will not recover." 

9. The connection of words, phrases or clauses, is sometimes rendered 
more emphatic by employing two or more connectives, which are usually sep- 
arated by some intervening word or phrase ; as, " Both you and I." " Socra- 
tes was wise, and Plato was also wise." He was not only forgiven, but he was 
even rewarded." 

10. The word both is used as a conjunction, adjective, or pronoun, and 
should be always employed to refer to only two persons, things or statements. 
The sentence, " Both men, women and children ran out to meet him," is faulty, 
because "both" is used to refer to three different objects. 

11. That is used in the office of a conjunction, relative pronoun, or adjective; 
as, " I learn that he is better." " It is the same man that I met yesterday." 
" That man is not worthy of regard." 



CORRESPONDING CONJUNCTIONS. 

463. Some conjunctions and adverbs must be followed by 
certain corresponding conjunctions. In composing they should 
follow each other in the order given in the list below. 

1. Conjunctions corresponding with Conjunctions* 

Either — or; as, " I will either send it or bring it." 
Neither — nor; as, " He will neither listen nor obey." 



§ LIX.] CONJUNCTIONS, 187 

Though, although — yet, still, nevertheless ; as, "Though he slay me, yet wiU 
I trust in him." 

Whether — or ; as, " Whether he will go, or not, is uncertain." 

2. Conjunctions corresponding with Adverbs. 

As — as ; (expressing equality) as, " She is as amiable as her sister." 
As — so ; (expressing equality) as, " As the stars, so shall thy seed be." 
So — as ; as, " He is not so wise as lie thinks himself to be." " Live so as to 

be happy." " Pompey was not so great a man as Caesar." 

So — that; (expressing a consequence) as, "He was so fatigued, that he 

could scarcely move." 

Hot only — but also; as, " He was not only rich, but also generous." 

3. Conjunctions corresponding with Adjectives, 

Such — as: as, " We have seldom had such a season as the present." 

Such — that: as, " Such is the difficulty attending the enterprise, that I am 
compelled to relinquish it." 

The conjunction than is used after the adverb rather, and after adjectives 
and adverbs in the comparative degree. 

The expressions, The more — the more, Tlie better — the better, The less — the 
less, &c, may be considered as correlatives, serving the purpose of uniting the 
clauses of a compound sentence in an emphatic manner. 

There are some abridged expressions, which it is convenient to call com- 
pound connectives : such as, As well as, inasmuch as, in order that, but that, &c. ; 
these, however, can generally be analyzed intelligibly, and each may be pars- 
ed separately, by supplying such words as the sense will allow. 

ANALYSIS AND PARSING. 

All this is done, and all this expenditure is incurred. 

In order to produce it now, we diminish the productiveness 

of all other labor. And the only effect is to postpone it to a 

still more distant period. 

Here are two distinct sentences, the general train of thought being con 
nccted by and, standing at the beginning of the second, after the period. 

Different men are constituted by the Creator with different 
aptitudes for different pursuits, and with different dispositions 
towards those pursuits. 

A great public as well as private advantage, arises from eve- 
ry one's devoting himself to that occupation which he prefers, 
and for which he is specially fitted. 

It is also evident that, by each nation's devoting itself to that 



188 SYNTAX. [§ LX. 

branch of production for which it has the greatest facilities* 
either original or acquired, its own happiness will be better pro- 
moted, and a greater amount of production created, than in any 
uther manner. 

This compound sentence consists of four members or clauses. " That " 
connects the clause, "it is also evident," &c, with the clause, "its own hap 
piness will be promoted ;" of which the phrase, " by each," &c, is an adjunct ; 
" and " connects the clause following it with the one before ; " than " connects 
" will be created," and " will be promoted," understood, to the same words ex 
pressed; "for which," &c, is a relative clause, and refers to "production." 
"Either" — "or," are corresponding conjunctions, and connect "original" 
and " acquired."' 

TO BE CORRECTED. 

There is no man so miserable, who does not enjoy something. 
Neither he or / am able to do it. I know not if it was James 
or his brother that performed the work. He asked me if I 
would call and see his brother ; it should be whether. I asked 
him if he knew me. The judge asked the foreman if the pris- 
oner was guilty or not guilty. 

I have travelled both in Europe, in France, and in America. 



Section LX. 
INTERJECTIONS. 

Rule XXV. 

464. Interjections have no governing power, and have 
no dependence on other words. 

REMARKS. 

1. Interjections often stand before nouns independent, and before whole 
clauses ; as, " virtue ! " " for a lodge in some vast wilderness ! " Some 
words must be supplied before such clauses, to complete the sentence ; as, " 
how I long for a lodge," &c. 

2, " Ah me ! " " Ah sinful nation ! " " They have forsaken the Lord !" 
" Oh me !" Such expressions may be considered elliptical, and words can be 
supplied to make a complete sentence ; as, " Ah pity me," " Ah this is a sinful 



§ LXI.] INTERJECTIONS. 189 

nation," " Oh save me ;" or they may be treated as the case independent, which 
is not necessarily confined to the nominative form. 

3. Certain verbs are used in exclamations ; as, " Behold ! how good and 
how pleasant it is for brethren to dwell together in unity ! " So in like man 
ner, " Hush ! " " Hark ! " " See ! " . 

4. The word what is sometimes used to denote surprise or wonder : as, 
" What ! could ye not watch with me one hour ?" The phrase, " What ho!" 
nay be parsed also as an interjection. 

Note. — It is not necessary to consider the verbs mentioned above and the 
pronoun what as interjections ; for in all such broken expressions, governing 
words can be supplied; as, What! [say you ?] or what [does this mean?] 
Hark! [ye.] See! [thou.] 

Section LXI. 

GENERAL EXERCISES ON THE RULES OF SYNTAX. 

EXERCISE I. 

Instances in which the same words are used in different offices, or as dif- 
ferent parts of speech. 

Calm was the day, and the scene delightful. We may ex- 
pect a calm after a storm. To prevent passion is easier than to 
calm it. 

Better is a little, with content, than a great deal, with anxie- 
ty. The gay and dissolute think little of the miseries which are 
stealing softly after them. A little attention will rectify some 
errors. 

Though he is out of danger, he is still afraid. He labored to 
still the tumult. Still waters are commonly the deepest. 

Damp air is unwholesome. Guilt often casts a damp over 
our sprightiiest hours. Soft bodies damp the sound much more 
than hard ones. 

Though she is rich and fair, yet she is not amiable. They 
are yet young, and must suspend their judgment yet a while. 

Many persons are better than we suppose them to be. The 
few and the many have their prepossessions. Few days pass 
without some clouds. 

The hail was very destructive. Hail ! virtue ! thou source 
of every good. We hail you as friends. 



190 SYNTAX. [§ LXI. 

Have you seen the book that I purchased yesterday ? Give 
me that book. I study that I may improve. 

A new broom sweeps better than an old one. The boatman 
labored at the sweeps all day. 

"We had been to the fair, and seen a fair lady. His lot is 
hard but fair. 

Much money is corrupting. Think much and speak little. 
He has seen much of the world, and been much caressed. 

His years are more than hers ; but he has not more knowl- 
edge. The more we are blessed, the more grateful we should 
be. The desire of getting more is rarely satisfied. 

He has equal knowledge, but inferior judgment. She is his 
inferior in sense, but his equal in prudence. 

Every being loves its like. "We must make a like space be- 
tween the lines. Behave yourselves like men. "We are too apt 
to like pernicious company. He may go or stay as he likes. 

They strive to learn. He goes to and fro. To his wisdom 
we owe our privilege. The proportion is ten to one. 

He has served them with his utmost ability. "When we do 
our utmost, no more is required. 

He is esteemed loth on his own account, and on that of his 
parents. Both of them deserve praise. 

Yesterday was a fine day. I rode out yesterday. I shall 
write to-morrow. To-morrow may be brighter than to-day. 
We shall arrive to-day. 

You must either go or stay, and you may do either, as you 
please. 

Behold ! how pleasant it is to see the sun. I behold men as 
trees, walking. 

EXERCISE II. 

A collection of idiomatic or peculiar expressions, difficult to analyze and 
parse, taken from writers of standard authority. 

As. As if. So as. 

In singing as in piping you excel. «— Dryden. 

I live as I did, I think as I did, I love you as I did. — Swift 



§ LXI.] EXERCISES IN PARSING. 191 

Mad as I was, I could not bear his fate with silent grief. — 
Dryden. 

Darest thou be as good as thy word now ? — Shakspeare. 

As thou art a prince I fear thee. — Id. 

The objections that are caused against it as & tragedy, are as 
follow. 

The noise pursues me wheresoe'er I go, 
As fate sought only me. — Dryden. 

At either end it whistled as it flew.' — Id. 

He answered their questions as if it were a matter that need- 
ed it. — Locke. 

Each man's mind has some peculiarity as well as his face. — Id* 

These should be gently treated, as though we expected to be 
in their condition. — Sharp. 

Sempronius is as brave a man as Cato. 

As for the rest of those who have written against me, they 
deserve not the least notice. — Dryden. 

Is it not every man's interest, that there should be such a 
government of the world as designs our happiness ? — Tillotson. 

A bottle swinging at each side, as hath been said or sung. — 
Oowper. 

They pretend, in general, to great refinements, as to what re- 
gards Christianity. — Addison. 

What, Whatever. Whatsoever. 

In these cases we examine the why, the what, and the how 
of things. 

Let them say what they will, she will do what she lists. — 
Drayton. 

Mark what it is, his mind aims at in this question, and not 
what words he expresses. — Locke. 

What ! canst not thou bear with me half an hour ? — Sharp. 

What if I advance an invention of my own to supply the de- 
fect of our new writers ? — Dryden. 

What though none live my innocence to tell ? 



192 SYNTAX. [§ LXI. 

Then balmy sleep had charmed my eye to rest 
What time the morn mysterious visions brings. — Pope. 
The enemy having his country wasted, what by himself and 
what by the soldiers, findeth succor in no places. — Spenser. 
Whatever is read, differs from what is repeated. — Swift. 
Whatsoever is first in the invention, is last in the execution. 
— Hammond. 

What ho ! thou genius of the clime, what ho ! — Dry den. 

Himself. Itself. So, &c. 

He himself returned again. David hid himself in the field. 
With shame he remembers while himself was one of the same 
herd, himself the same had done. — Denham. 

I viewed in my mind, so far as I was able, the beginning and 
progress of a rising world. 

We think our fathers fools, so wise we 're grown, 
Our wiser sons no doubt will think us so. 
Deliver us from the nauseous repetition of As and So, which 
some so so writers, I may call them so, are continually sounding 
in our ears. — Felton. 

O, so, and had you a counsel of ladies too ? 

When. While. Then. 

Kings may take their advantage when and how they list. 
I was adopted heir by his consent, 
Since when his oath is broke. — Shakspeare. 
Pausing a while thus to herself she mused. — Milton. 
One while we thought him innocent. — Ben Jonson. 
Use your memory ; you will sensibly experience a gradual 
improvement, while you take care not to overload it. 

The then bishop of London, Dr. Laud, attended on his majesty 
ihroughout that whole journey. — Clarendon. 

Thee then a boy within my arms I laid. — Dryden. 

Till then who knew the force of those dire dreams ? — Milton. 

That. Both. 

He wins me by that means I told you. — Shakspeare. 
What is that to us ? See thou to that. — Matthew. 



§ LXI.] EXERCISES IN PARSING. 193 

I '11 know jour business, that I will. — Shakspeare. 
Treat it kindly that it may 
Wish at least with us to stay. — Cowley. 

O that those lips had language ! — Coivper. 

And the next day, both* morning and afternoon, he was kept 
by our party. 

Each other. One another. 

Loveliest of women ! heaven is in thy soul, beauty and vir- 
tue shine forever about thee, bright'ning each other. Thou art 
all divine. — Addison. 

The storm beats the trees against one another. — Johnson. 

This is the message that ye heard from the beginning, that 
we should love one another. — John. 

Beloved, let us love one another. — Id. 

Save. Butf 

All the conspirators save only he, 
Did that they did in envy of great Cassar. — Shakspeare. 

Night shades the groves, and all in silence lie, 
All save the mournful Philomel and I. — Young. 

He that is washed needeth not, save to wash his feet. 
And all desisted, all save him alone. — Wadsworth. 
Who ,ean it be, ye perjured Gods, hut Lycon ? 

For who but he who arched the skies, 

Could raise the daisy's purple bud ? 

* Both, in this sentence would be considered a corresponding conjunction by 
most grammarians ; but if the sentence is analyzed carefully, it will be seen 
that both refers to the periods of time, namely, he was kept by our party, in 
both parts of the day, morning and afternoon. Both, therefore, is strictly an 
adjective. It may not, however, be worth while to deviate from the usual 
method of disposing of it. 

fThe words save and but, when, in the sense of '•' except," or "not includ- 
ing," they are followed by an objective case, are considered prepositions. 

When used in the sense of except, they are more commonly followed by a 
nominative, or by an entire clause ; and in this case they do the office of a 
connective, and are termed conjunctions. 

The word save is by some considered a verb in the Imperative in all con- 
nections. But this word, and nearly all the conjunctions and prepositions^ ap- 
pear to have lost their original verbal power, and are now used as connectives 
to show the relations of words or sentences, rather than to express the action 
of a subject, 

17 



194 SYNTAX. [§ Lxn 

The boy stood on the burning deck, 
Whence all but him had fled. — Hemans. 



Section LXII. 

EXERCISE III. 

465. False Syntax, or examples to be corrected accord- 
ing to previous Rules of Syntax. 

I admire the generous sympathy of Lafayette, he who be- 
friended America. 

The tomb we visited, was Washington's, the man who is the 
boast and pride of America. 

They slew Varus, he that was mentioned before. 

Him it is whom they persecuted. 

Whom do you think it is ? 

Who do you think it to be ? 

It was him that said it, not I, 

Was it him of whom you spake ? 

Man, though he has a great variety of thoughts, yet they are 
all within his own breast. 

Trouble, though it may be long delayed, yet it will surely 
come. 

There is a great many different ways of accumulating wealth. 

Nothing but vain and foolish pursuits delight some persons. 

What avails the best sentiments, if persons do not live suita- 
bly to them ? 

Thou who art the Author of life can restore it. 

There is many occasions in life in which silence and simplicity 
is true wisdom. 

Great pains was taken to reconcile the parties. [This is 

right.] 

Note. — According to the best usage, the word pains in the sense of labor, 
trouble, &c, though of a plural form, is joined with a singular verb ; as, The 
pains they had taken was very great. — Clarendon. No pains is taken.— Pope. 
Bee Worcester's Dictionary. 

He need not proceed in such haste, [right.] 



§ LXII.] EXERCISES IN PARSING. 195 

He dare not touch a hair of Catiline, [right.] 
He dare hirn to the trial, [wrong.] 
We need our sympathy, [wrong.] 

Note. — The verbs need and dare, are used both in a transitive and intran- 
sitive sense. When they are intransitive, good usage authorizes the plural form 
with nouns in the singular. 

To live soberly and piously are required of all. 

What signifies the counsel and care of teachers ? 

One, added to nineteen, make twenty. 

Idleness and ignorance is the parent of many vices. 

In unity consists the welfare and security of society. 

One or both of the scholars was present at the transaction. 

The deceitfulness of riches, or the cares of life, has choked 
the seeds of virtue in many a promising mind. 

The people rejoices in that which should give them sorrow. 

The British parliament are composed of king, lords and com- 
mons. 

The time of William making the experiment. 

Such will ever be the effect of youth associating with vicious 
companions. 

Who have I reason to esteem so highly as you ? 

Ye who are dead hath he quickened. 

And he that was dead set up and began to speak. 

We have done no more than it was our duty to have done. 

I always intended to have rewarded my son. 

He appeared to have been a man of letters. 

It was a pleasure to have received this approbation. 

They whom he had most injured, he had the greatest reason 
to love. Who shall I call you ? 

I am not recommending these kind of sufferings. 

By this mean, he had them more at vantage. 

There is no mean of escaping the persecution. 

And with this amend he was content. 

Peace of mind is an honorable amend for the sacrifices of 
self-interest. 

Note. --The word means in the sense of " cause," and the word amends and 
several others, as, alms, news, riches, &c, have only the plural, form and may- 
be used either in the singular or plural number. 



196 SYNTAX. [§ LXII. 

Some men think exceeding clearly, and reason exceeding 
forcibly. 

He acted in this business bolder than was expected. 

They were seen wandering about solitarily and distressed. 

Every leaf, every twig, every drop of water, teem with life. 

Every man and every woman were numbered, 

Man's happiness or misery are in a great measure put into 
his hands. 

What black despair, what horror tills his mind. 

Virtue confers the supremest dignity on man. 

His work is perfect ; but his brothers is more than perfect. 

Which of them two persons was in fault ? 

We have a great many of them flowers in the garden. 

Each of them in their turn receive favors. 

Every person, whatever be their station, are bound by the 
duties of morality and religion. 

Humility and love constitutes the essence of religion. 

If one man prefer a life of industry and economy, it is be- 
cause he has an idea of comfort and wealth. 

Though the design be laudable, it will involve much anxiety 
and labor. 

A large number of vessels is being built, the present season. 

The army is being concentrated to invade the capital. 

I intended to have called on my way home. 

I had hoped to have seen the affair amicably settled. 

It was said by somebody, I know not who, that Charles was 
the person who they imputed the crime to. 

Neither despise the poor or envy the rich. 

I should be obliged to him if he will gratify me. 

The relations are so uncertain, as that they require much ex- 
amination. 

Note. — Prepositions are often incorrectly applied. 

They arrived in Boston at 9 o'clock A. M. [at.] 
The old man was sitting upon the ground on the side of the 
road* 



§ LXII.] EXERCISES IN PAUSING. 197 

I differ entirely with you in this particular, [from.] 
He was resolved of going to the Persian court. 
He was eager of recommending it to his fellow-citizens. 
He accused the ministers for betraying the Dutch. 
The history of Peter is agreeable with the sacred text. 
It is a use that perhaps I should have thought on. 
He was made much on at Argus. 
Neither of them shall make me swerve out of my path. 
Ye blind guides which strain at a gnat and swallow a camel, 
[out.] 

466. PUNCTUATION* 

Note. — The general principles which govern the use of the points or 
marks, will be easily learned by oral instruction, or by writing sentences 
without marks, on the black board, and punctuating them according to the 
general rules given below. 

THE USE OF THE COMMA. 
The comma [,] which is the mark most frequently used in punctuation, 
may be inserted according to the following rules. 

Rule I. 
The comma should be used to separate the clauses of a 
compound sentence. 

EXAMPLES. 

A wise son maketh a glad father, but a foolish man despiseth 
his mother. 

This is a compound sentence, consisting of two clauses, which are separated 
by a comma. 

EXERCISE. 
Analyze the following sentences and explain the use of the comma. 
A stone is heavy, and the sand [is] weighty. As cold water 
to a thirsty soul, so is good news from a far country. 
The sun had risen bright and high, 
And cloudless shone along the sky. 

* Writers differ much in regard to punctuation; some use fewer marks 
than others ; some dispense entirely with the colon [:] ,• some use the comma 
where others would use -the semicolon [;]. There is, indeed, a great want of 
uniformity in punctuation, the principal object of which is, to separate the 
parts of a sentence, that their relations may not be misunderstood. 

17* 



198 SYNTAX. [§ LXII. 

Insert commas in the proper places in the following compound sentences. 
Let each sentence by analyzed before inserting the comma. 

When the graces of novelty are worn off admiration is suc- 
ceeded by indifference. The ox knoweth his owner the ass his 
master's crib Israel doth not know my people do not consider. 
He who preserves me to whom I owe my being whose I am 
and whom I serve is eternal. 

Note.— When the compound sentence consists of two clauses only, which 
are closely connected, the comma may be omitted ; as, " The sluggard is 
wiser in his own conceit than seven men that can render a reason." 

Rule II. 

The comma should be used to mark the omission of some 
word or words, necessary to a complete grammatical con- 
struction. 

EXAMPLE. 

Self conceit, presumption, and obstinacy blast the prospects 
of many a youth. 

EXERCISE. 

Analyze the following sentences, and supply some word or words whose 
omission is indicated by the comma. 

We hear nothing of causing the blind to see, the lame to walk, 
the deaf to hear, the lepers to be cleansed. The miseries of 
poverty, of sickness, of captivity, would without hope be insup- 
portable. To err is human ; to forgive, divine. His wisdom, 
not his talents, attracted attention. 

Insert the comma to mark the ellipsis in the following sentences. 

The earth the sea the rain* the snow the night the day sum- 
mer and winter seed time and harvest show forth the wisdom 
and goodness of the Creator. He was gigantic in knowledge 
in virtue in health. 

Rule III. 

The case independent, with its modifying words, all de- 
tached assertions and phrases, direct quotations, and adverbs 



§ LXII.] PUNCTUATION. 199 

used independently, or referring to the whole sentence, 
should be separated by commas ; as, 

"Why, Mr. Pearson," said she, "you are just like Dr. Johnson, I think.' 7 
Mr. Pearson is in the case independent ; the adverb, why, is used indepen- 
dently, or it refers to the whole sentence ; said she, is a detached assertion. 
Why, Mr. Pearson, and said she, are separated by commas, according to the 
rule. 

Note. — The words, yes, no, now, however, indeed, perhaps, again, finally^ 
and the phrases, in short, at length, at least, in return, and the like, are gener- 
ally to be separated by commas from the words contiguous to them. 



Rule IV. 
A comma is sometimes used to separate words and clauses, 
expressing contrast or opposition ; as, 

Liberal, not lavish, is kind nature's hand. 

Though deep, yet clear ; though gentle, yet not dull. 

Rule V. 
When three or more nouns, adjectives, verbs, or adverbs 
occur in succession, they should be separated by commas ; as 

A woman, gentle, sensible, well informed and religious. The husband, 
wife, and children, suffered extremely. In a letter, we may advise, exhort, 
comfort, request, and discuss. 

Rule VI. 

Clauses and phrases, which occur between words connect- 
ed in construction, and words in apposition, when accompanied 
with adjuncts, are generally separated by commas ; as, 

Johnson had repeated a psalm which he had translated, during his affliction, 
into Latin verses. Cowper, the gifted poet, died in the year 1800. Miltiades, 
the son of Cimon, the Athenian. 

Note. — If the word in apposition is not limited by an adjunct, or qualified 
by an adjective, the comma should not be inserted; as, " Milton the poet." 

Rule VII. 
The parts of a simple sentence are not generally separated^ 



200 sraTAx, [§ lxii. 

except when they are long or interrupted by phrases or ex* 
planatory words ; as, 

The eyes of the mind are like the eyes of the body. 

To be very active in laudable pursuits, is the distinguishing characteristic 
of a man of merit, 

REMARK. 

The insertion of a comma between contiguous words, closely connected in 
construction, should be avoided, unless such words are particularly emphatic 
or important. 

SEMICOLON, COLON, AND PERIOD. 

The semicolon [;] is placed between the clauses of a period,^ 

which are less closely connected than such as are separated by 

commas. 

Note. — It is impossible to give very definite rules for the use of the semi- 
colon. Its use, like that of other pauses, must be learned in a great measure 
by observing how it is employed by the most correct writers. 

The colon [:] is used when there is still less connection in the 
parts of a period, than that which is indicated by the semicolon. 
See note above. 

The period [.] is used after a sentence which is complete and 
Independent. 

A period is also used after abbreviations ; as N. S., P. S., N. B. 

The dash [ — ] denotes an abrupt turn in the sentence ; or, 
that a significant pause is required ; as, " Here lies the great — 
false marble. 5 ' It is also used to denote the omission of letters 
in a word, and of words in a sentence ; as, K — g, for king. 

The mark of interrogation [?] is used to denote that a ques- 
tion is asked. 

The mark of exclamation [!] denotes wonder or surprise. 

The parentheses ( ) are used to include an explanatory clause, 
not connected in construction with the rest of the sentence. 

The brackets, [ ] or hooks, are used to inclose an explanatory 
note or word, f 

* A period is a sentence complete, making perfect sense, and not connect 
ed in construction with what follows. — Webster. 

f The use of other marks, such as the apostrophe ('), the double comma 
(" "), caret (a), &c, can be learned from spelling books. 



§ LXIII.] COMPOSITION. 201 

Section LXIII. 

467. COMPOSITION* 
Description. — Result of Perception. 

EXERCISE I. SIGHT. 
Direction. — Place an object before you. Examine it carefully by your 
sense of sight. You must neither touch, taste nor smell it. Then write what 
you have learned by sight. 

Model. A piece of sealing-wax. 

This piece of sealing wax is about four inches long, half an inch broad, 
and a quarter of an inch in thickness. It is of a very bright red, and stamped 
with the name of the manufacturer. Its surface shines like glass, so that I 
suppose it is smooth, though I cannot be sure of this without touching it. One 
end is rough as if broken, and the other is smoked from having been in the 
flame of a candle. 

Describe in a similar manner the following objects. 

A book. An inkstand. A chair. 

A pen-knife. A sheet of paper. A looking-glass. 

EXERCISE II. TASTE. 

Direction. — Taste the object and write the result. 

Model. A cup of tea. 

The substance in the cup is called tea, though, properly speaking, it is only an 
infusion of the leaves of that plant. Its taste is peculiar, but pleasant. It is 
naturally somewhat bitter, but the sugar prevents it from being unpleasantly 
so. The flavor is aromatic and agreeable. 

Objects to be described. 

Onion. Honey. Cinnamon. 

Potato. Orange. Strawberries. 

Lemon. Coffee. Apples. 

Vinegar. Liquorice. Cheese. 



* Since the first edition of this work was published, the author has receiv- 
ed, through the kindness of a friend, a small work on composition, published 
in Edinburgh, 1839, edited by W. & R. Chambers, to which he is mainly in- 
debted for some of the following pages. 



202 SYNTAX. [§ LXIII. 

EXERCISE III. SMELL. 

Direction. — Exercise the sense of smell, and write the result. 

Model. A full blown rose. 
This beautiful flower is called the rose. Its buds are gradually opening, and 
from each proceeds a most delightful odor. But the chief perfume is from the 
petals of the full blown flower. The essence which is extracted from the 
rose-leaves, forms a fragrant scent termed otto of roses. 

Objects to be described. 

Violet. Lilac. Burnt-feather. 

Boxberry. Cologne. Tansy. 

Orange. Strawberry. Hartshorn. 

Pine-apple. Geranium. "Wormwood. 

EXERCISE IV. FEELING. 
Direction. — With eyes shut, touch the object, and write the result. 

Model, An octavo volume. 

I perceive by feeling, that this book is about ten inches long, six broad, and 
three in thickness. 

The book is smooth and hard, with raised ornaments on the back. I think 
it has been near the fire, for it feels somewhat warm. 

Objects to be described. 

Door. Hair-glove. A shilling. 

Sponge. Marble. Woollen cloth. 

Bread. Paper. Spectator. 

A bell. Silk. Soap. 

EXEKCISE V. HEARING. 
Direction. — Strike the object, or listen to its natural sounds, and describe 
them. 

Model. 

Last night I listened to the wind. Sometimes it whined like a dog, then 
it gave a sort of a shrill whistle. That was followed by a hollow moaning, 
and then there was a loud rush like a waterfall. This ceased, and afterwards 
there was a mixture of whistling and hissing. At last, it died away in gentle 
murmurs. 

Objects to be described. 

A fife. The sea. Singing of birds. 

A violin. Trees. A choir. 

A trumpet. Thunder. Bells. 

A drum. Hail. Sounds in a street. 



§ LXIII.] COMPOSITION. 203 



W EXERCISE VI. ALL THE SENSES. 

Direction. — Place the object before you, examine it carefully by your 
senses in turn. Then write down the information which each organ has given 
you. Finish what you have learned from one sense, before you proceed to 
the next. 

Model. A pencil. 

1. My eyes tell me that the pencil is about five inches long, and a quarter 
of an inch in thickness. Its shape is round like a pillar, quite flat at one end, 
and tapering to a point at the other. Its color is a beautiful light brown with 
dark streaks. It is at present lying on a sheet of white paper, with an old pen 
on one side, and a short piece of red sealing wax on the other. 

2. By feeling I perceive its shape to be exactly what my eyes communicat- 
ed. But I ascertain something which my eyes could not tell ; namely, that 
the pencil is as hard as this sealing-wax. It is smooth on one side and rough 
on the other. 

3. When I put it to my nostrils, I perceive that it has a very slight pleasant 
odor, like that of cedar wood. 

4. The taste is sweetish. 5. It utters no sound. 

Objects to be described. 

A piece of money.An apple. A thistle. 

An orange. A shell. A pen. 

A watch. A lemon. A ball. 

A flower. A book. A clock. 

EXERCISE VII. STATEMENTS AND EXPERIMENTS. 

Direction. — Place an object before you. Try it by your own senses as 
before ; then make experiments on it, and write down the result. 

Model. A piece of India-rubber. 

This piece of India-rubber, or caoutchouc, is three inches long, two broad, 
and one thick. It is in shape, a sort of solid oblong. Its color is nearly black, 
with whitish or grayish parts in the middle, while some portions of it seem 
somewhat brown. Its smell is strong and somewhat disagreeable. It has no 
peculiar taste, though some boys are fond of chewing it. I shall now make 
some experiments with it. While I hold one end, you must pull out the other. 
When you let go, it returns to its former shape. Then I find it is elastic. Next 
I put a small piece into the flame of a candle, and I perceive it takes fire very 
readily, burning with brilliant light, white at the bottom, and red at the top, 
emitting a considerable quantity of black smoke. I therefore ascertain that it 
is inflammable. By putting it into water, I perceive it floats, so its specific 
gravity must be less than that of water. I further observe that it does not di- 
minish its bulk, from which I infer that it is insoluble in water. I have been 



204 SYNTAX. [§ Lxni. 

informed, however, that tar will dissolve it. I have found it very useful in rub- 
bing out pencil marks. 

Things to be described. 

1. Small piece of glass. 

Qualities, as proved by the senses. Size. Shape. Color. Weight. Heat. 
Hardness. Smell. Taste. 

Experiments. By breaking, marking, &c. 

2. Coal. 

Qualities, as proved by the senses. Size. Shape. Color. Weight. 
Experiments. With water, with fire, with a hammer. 

3. A sheet of paper. 

Qualities. Size. Shape, &c. 
Experiments. With water, with fire, with paint, with pencil, with ink. 

4. Sealing-wax. 

Qualities. Shape. Size. Color. Weight, &c. 
Experiments. With flame, with water, &c. 

EXERCISE VIII. SOURCES OF THINGS. 

Direction. Place an object before you. Think of its origin, or from what 
source it came. If you do not know, ask your teacher or consult a book. 
Then put down all that you have heard. You may then add an account 
of its appearance, qualities, &c. Your description may conclude with some 
experiments. 

Model. A piece of lead. 

The substance before me is a metal called lead. I procured this piece at 
the plumber's, and he bought it of the owner of the lead works. Lead is ob- 
tained by melting the ore, which is dug out of mines by men employed for 
that purpose. Lead is bluish white, very bright when cut or newly melted, 
but it becomes dull and dim after it has been in the air for some time. It has 
no taste, but if you rub it, you will perceive a slight smell. It is very soft, and 
may be hammered into thin plates. It is easily melted, as you may prove by 
putting a piece into the fire. 

Objects to be described. 

1. A piece of bread. 

Suggestions. Baker, oven, flour ; miller, mill, stream, horses, water ; far- 
mer, ground, plough, harrow, horses, men, sun, rain, harvest, thrashing, win- 
nowing ; soft, white, sweet, wholesome, nutritious* 



§ LXIII.] COMPOSITION. 205 

2. A coat. 

Sitggestions. Tailor, cloth, merchant, manufacturer, wool, ctying, spinning, 
weaving ; wool-grower, sheep-washing, shearing. Shape, color, quality, &c. 

3. Sugar. 

Suggestions. Grocer, merchant, ship, sailors, oven ; West Indies, planta- 
tion, negroes, sugar-cane ; refining. Shape, color, size, smell, taste, &c. 

4. Paper. 

Suggestions. Stationers, paper-maker's mill, water or steam, rags, boiling, 
sizing, &c. ; rag-merchant, linen, flax plant, mode of preparation, &c. Shape, 
size, color, quality. 

EXERCISE IX. USES OF THINGS. 

Direction. — Place the object before you, and think for what purpose it 
is usually employed. If you do not know, ask your teacher, or consult a 
book. 

Model, A piece of lead. 

This metal is of very great use. Water pipes, cisterns, and roofs of houses 
are made of it. Chemists form two substances out of it, called red and white 
lead, both of which are poisonous. If we mix it with tin, the result is that 
useful compound called pewter, of which some table spoons are made. When 
blended with antimony, it affords a composition from which printers' types 
are cast. 

Mention the uses of the following objects. 

Iron and steel. Gold. Sheep. 

Wood. Leather. Silver. 

Mahogany. Cotton Cloth. Water. 

Glass. Cows. Steam-engine. 

EXERCISE X. PARTS OF THINGS. 

Direction. — Place the object before you. Inquire how it came there, 
say where you bought it, whence the merchant procured it, &c. Tell whether 
it is natural or artificial, simple or compound, &c. 

Model. A pen-knife. 

There is a pen-knife on the table before me. 1 bought it at the cutler's. 
He either made it himself, or procured it of the manufacturer. It consists of 
two parts, each formed of a different substance. The handle is of horn, prob- 
ably that of a stag. It is of a brown color, rough and hard. It has several 
small rivets in it for the purpose of holding its sides together. On one side 
there is a small plate on which the owner's name may be engraven. The sec- 
ond substance is steel, of which the blade is composed. Steel is an artificial 
18 



206 SYNTAX. [§ LXIII. 

metal, the result of iron prepared with charcoal. It is very hard and smooth- 
When properly tempered, it makes very sharp blades. 

Practice according to the Direction and Model. 

1. A room. 

Suggestions. Floor-boards, carpet-maker, pattern, color, texture, size, shape, 
walls, plaster, paper, color, figure, quality, 

2. A book. 

Suggestions. Leaves, pages, margins, title-pages, edges, plates, wood cuts, 
binding, author, printer, book-binder, book-seller. 

3. A house. 

Suggestions. Foundation, walls, roof, floors, doors, windows, stairs, chim- 
neys, wood-work, plastering, painting, papering. What are the tradesmen em- 
ployed in making a house ? 

4. A fire-place. 5. An ink-stand 

EXERCISE XI. 

The following directions may afford some aid to the learner in his efforts at 
composition. 

1. A subject should be selected on which the writer has some definite 
knowledge, and which is not beyond his power of comprehension. 

2. The writer should think long and patiently on his subject before attempt- 
ing to compose. 

3. When the subject admits of it, he should form a plan and make such 
divisions as will enable him to examine every part separately, something like 
the following example. 

EXAMPLE. 

Subject. — Children should render obedience and love to their 
parents. 

1. Because they are under obligations to their parents for benefits received 
from them. 

2. Because in this way they secure their own happiness. 

3. Because God has commanded them to honor their parents. 
Sometimes merely the heads of an essay or subject are presented as a skel- 
eton of the whole ; as follows : 

Subject — Independence. 

1. The meaning of independence. 

2. Its effect upon the character. 

3. Its effect upon society. 

4. The different kinds of independence. 

5. The difference between independence and obstinacy. 



§ LXIII.j COMPOSITION. 207 



EXERCISE XII. 

Let a plan or skeleton be made out for the treatment of the following subjects* 

Subjects. 

Benevolence. Industry. 

Power of conscience. The love of praise. 

Integrity. Intemperance. 

The observance of the Sabbath. Education. 

A fretful temper. The love of knowledge. 

After the subject has been selected, and methodized or planned, the follow- 
ing directions may be observed, 

1. Examine the divisions separately, and place such thoughts under each 
division, and no others, as properly belong to it. 

2. Carefully analyze every sentence after it has been written, to see wheth 
er any improper or unnecessary words have been used, and whether the sen- 
tence is grammatically correct. 

3. After the essay or composition has been once written, begin anew and 
re-write every sentence, and inquire at each, whether some different expressions 
would not be more clear and forcible, keeping in mind that almost every 
thought may be expressed in a variety of ways. 

4. Attend carefully to the spelling, pointing, and capitals.^ 

EXERCISE XIII. VARIETY OF EXPRESSION. 

The same idea may be expressed in different ways ; and it will be both 
useful and entertaining for the learner to practice such exercises as the 
following. 

Model 
The soul is immortal. 

The same idea may be expressed in different ways. 
The soul will never die. 
The soul will never cease to exist. 
The soul will live forever. 
The soul is destined to an endless existence. 

Sentences for Practice. 

A wise son maketh a glad father. A foolish son is the heav- 
iness of (cause of sorrow to) his mother. 

* Newman's Rhetoric. See also Parker's Aids to English Composition. 



208 PROSODY. [§ LXIV 

When we have finished our work, we will play. 

After dinner we will walk in the field. 

Intemperance is ruinous to the mind as well as to the body 

A wolf let into the sheep-fold, will devour the sheep. 

True religion teaches us to be gentle and affable. 

My friend died last night, without a struggle or a groan. 



PART V. 

PROSODY. 

Section LXIV. 

468. Prosody treats of accent, quantity, and the laws of 
versification. 

1. Accent is the laying of a particular stress of voice on a 
certain syllable in a word ; as, the syllable ban in abandon. 

2. Accent should not be confounded with Emphasis. Em- 
phasis is a stress of voice on a word in a sentence, to mark its 
importance. Accent is a stress of voice on a syllable in a word. 

3. The quantity of a syllable is the time which is required to 
pronounce it. A short syllable requires half the time of a long 
one. 

VEKSIFICATION. 

469. Versification is a measured arrangement of words 
into poetical lines or verses. 

1. A verse consists of a certain number of accented and unac- 
cented syllables, arranged according to certain rules. 

2. Rhyme is the correspondence of the last sound of one line 
to the last sound of another. 

3. Blank verse is the name given to a kind of poetry written 
without rhyme. 



§ LXIV.] VERSIFICATION. 209 

4. A stanza consists of several lines, and is sometimes im- 
properly called a verse. 

5. A couplet, or distich, consists of two poetical lines which 
make complete sense. 

6. Afoot is a division of a verse consisting of two or three 
syllables. 

7. Scanning is dividing a line into the feet of which it is 
composed. 

The principal feet in English verse are the following : 

FEET. 

1. An Iambus, u - 

2. A Trochee, - w 

3. An Anapasst, v w - 

8. An Iambus has the first syllable unaccented, and the last 
accented ; as, Betray, consist. 

9. A Trochee has the first syllable accented, and the last un- 
accented ; as, Hateful pettish. 

10. An Anapaest has the first two syllables unaccented, and 
the last accented; as, Contravene, acquiesce. 

IAMBIC VERSE. 

470. Iambic verses may be divided into several species, 
according to the number of feet or syllables of which they 
are composed. 

1. The shortest form of the English Iambic consists of an 
Iambus, with an additional short syllable ; as, 

Disdaining, 
Complaining, 
Consenting, 
Repenting. 

Note. — We have no poem of this measure, but it may be met with In 
stanzas. 

2. The second form of our Iambic is also too short to be con- 
tinued through any great number of lines. It consists of two 
Iambuses. 

18* 



210 PROSODY. [§ LXIV. 

Note. — In reading Iambic verse, the accent is on the second syllable of 
each foot ; or on the even syllables ; as, 

To me | the rose. 

What place | is here ! 
What scenes | appear ! 

It sometimes takes, or may take an additional short syllable ; as, 

| Upon | a mount | ain 
Beside a fountain. 

3. The third form consists of three Iambuses. 

In pla | ces far | or near, 
Or fa | mous or | obscure*. 

It sometimes admits of an additional short syllable ; as, 

Our hearts | no Ion | ger Mn | guish. 

4. The fourth form is made up of four Iambuses. 

And m&y | at last | my wea | ry age. 
Find out | the peace | ful her | mitage. 

5. The fifth species of English Iambic consists of five Iam- 
buses. 

How loVd, | how val | u'd once | avails | thee not, 
To whom related, dr by whom begot. 

This is called the Heroic measure. In its simplest form it consists of five 
Iambuses ; but by the admission of other feet, it is capable of many varieties. 

6. The sixth form of our Iambic is commonly called Alexan- 
drine measure. It consists of six Iambuses. 

For thou | art but | of dust ; | be hum | ble and | be wise. 

7. The seventh and last form of our Iambic measure is made 
up of seven Iambuses. 

The Lord | descen | ded from | above | and bdw'd ] the heav | ens 
high. 

This was anciently written in one line ; but it is now broken into two ; the 
first containing four feet, and the second three ; as, 

When all | thy mer | cies 0' | my God ! 
My ris ] ing soul | surveys. 

471. TEOCHAIC VEESE. 

1. The shortest Trochaic verse in our language consists of 
one Trochee and a long syllable. 



§ LXIV.] VERSIFICATION- 211 

Tumult | cease, 
Sink to | peace. 

This measure is defective in dignity, and can seldom be used on serious 
occasions. 

2. The second English form of the Trochaic consists of two 

feet ; and is likewise so brief, that it is rarely used for any very 

serious purpose. 

On the | mdun [ tain, 
By a | foun | tain. 

Note. — In reading Trochaic verse, the accent is placed on the first sylla- 
ble of each foot, or on the odd syllables ; as, 

On' the | mountain. 

It sometimes contains two feet, or trochees, with an additional long 
syllable ; as, 

In the | ddys of | old 
Fables plainly told. 

3. The third species consists of three trochees ; as, 

When our | hearts are | mourning. 

Or of three trochees, with an additional long syllable ; as, 

Restless | mortals | toil for | nought ; 
Bliss in | vain from | earth is | sought. 

4. The fourth Trochaic species consists of four trochees ; as. 

Round us | roars the | tempest | louder. 

This form may take an additional long syllable, as follows : 

Pdle | after | dinner [ in his | chair, 
Sat a | farmer, | niddy, | fat and | fair. 

But this measure is very uncommon. 

5. The fifth Trochaic species is likewise uncommon. It is 
composed of Jive trochees, 

Air* that | walk on | foot or | ride in | chdri | ots, 
All that | dwell in | pala | ces or | garrets. 

6. The sixth form of the English Trochaic consists of six tro- 
chees ; as, 

On* a I mountain, [ stretch' d be | neath a | hoary | willow, 
Lay a j shepherd | swain, and | view'd the | rolling | billow. 

This seems to be the longest trochaic line that our language admits. 



212 PROSODY. [ LXV 



472. ANAPAESTIC VEKSE. 

1. The first and simplest form of our genuine Anapaestic 
verse is made up of two Anapaests ; as, 

But his cour | age 'gan fail, 
For no arts | could avail. 

This form admits of an additional short syllable. 

Then his cour | age 'gan fall | him, 
For no arts | could avail ] him. 

2. The second species consists of three Anapaests. 

ye woods, | spread your branch | es apace ; 
To your deepest recesses I fly ; 

1 would hide with the beasts of the chase ; 
I would vanish from every eye\ 

This is a very pleasing measure, and much used, both in solemn and 
cheerful subjects. 

3. The third kind of the English Anapaestic, consists of four 
Anapaests. 

May I gov | ern my p&s | sions with &b | solute sway ; 
And gro wi | ser and bet | ter as life | wears away . 

This measure will admit of a short syllable at the end ; as, 

On the warm | cheek of youth, | smiles and rd | ses are blend | ing. 

Note. — In reading Anapaestic verse, the accent is placed on the third 
syllable of each foot ; as, 

I would hide | with the beasts | of the chase. 



Section LXV. 
POETIC LICENSE. 

473. Poetry owes much of its effect to the peculiar style 
in which it is dressed. It indulges more freely than prose in 



LXV.] POETIC LICENSE. 213 

figurative expressions, in contractions and transpositions, in 
exclamations, antiquated words, and phrases, and other 
peculiarities. 

Such licenses may be explained under what is usually termed 
Figures of Etymology, Figures of Syntax, and Figures of 
Rhetoric. 

1. A figure of Etymology is the intentional deviation in the 
usual form of a word. 

2. A figure of Syntax is the intentional deviation in the usual 
construction of a word. 

3. A figure in Rhetoric is a departure from the usual appli- 
cation of a word. 

FIGURES OF ETYMOLOGY. 

474. The principal Figures of Etymology are Elision, 
Synceresis, Diaeresis, Paragoge, Prosthesis and Tmesis. 

1. Elision is the omission of a part of a word. 

This figure includes Syncope, or an omission in the middle of a word ; as, 
List'ning, lov'd; Apocope, or the elision of a final vowel or syllable ; Aphceresis, 
or the elision of a letter or syllable from the beginning of a word ; as, 'gainst, 
for against ; 'squire, for esquire. 

2. Synthesis is the contraction of two syllables into one ; 
as, Seest, for see-est ; drowned, for drown-ed. 

3. Diuresis is the separation of two vowels that might form 
a diphthong ; as aerial, not cerial ; cooperate, not cooperate. 

4. Par ago ge is the addition of a letter or syllable to the end 
of a word ; as, Without-en for without ; bound-en for bound. 

5. Prosthesis is the prefixingof an expletive letter ; as, Be- 
loved for loved ; a-doivn for down ; y-clad for clad. 

6. Tmesis is the separation of a compound word, by an inter- 
vening word ; as, To-us-ward for toward us. 



214 PROSODY. [§ LXY. 

FIGUKES OF SYNTAX. 

475. The principal figures of Syntax are Ellipsis, Pleo- 
nasm, Enallage, Hyperbaton. 

1. Ellipsis is the omission of some word or words necessa- 
ry to complete the construction of the sentence, but not essen- 
tial to express the meaning. 

Almost all compound sentences are more or less elliptical, some examples 
of which may be seen under the different parts of speech. 

1. The ellipsis of the article; as, A man, woman, and child. The article a 
is omitted, by ellipsis, before woman and child . 

2. The ellipsis of the noun ; as, The laws of God and man ; that is, the laws 
of God and the laws of man. 

3. The ellipsis of the adjective ; as, A delightful garden and orchard ; that 
is, a delightful garden and a delightful orchard. 

4. The ellipsis of the pronoun ; as, I love and fear him ; that is, I love Mm, 
&c. This is the man they love ; that is, which they love. 

5. The ellipsis of the verb ; as, The man was old and crafty ; that is, the 
man was old, and the man was crafty. She was young and beautiful and 
good ; that, is, she was young, she was beautiful, and she was good. I went 
to see and hear him ; that is, to see him, and to hear him. 

6. The ellipsis of the adverb ; as, He spoke and acted wisely ; that is, He 
spoke wisely, and he acted wisely. 

7. The ellipsis of the preposition ; as, He went into the abbeys, halls, and 
public buildings ; into is omitted before halls, an&public buildings. 

8. The ellipsis of the conjunction ; as, They confess the power, wisdom, 
goodness, and love of the Creator ; and is omitted, by ellipsis, before wisdom 
and goodness. 

9. The ellipsis of the interjection ; as, pity and shame ! that is, pity ! 
O shame ! 

2. Pleonasm is the use of more words than are necessary 
to express the meaning ; as, 

Peace, virtue I Peace is all thy own. 

3. Enallage is the use of one part of speech for another ; as, 

The fearful hare limps awhward. 
They fall successive and successive rise. 

4. Htperbaton is the transposition of words ; as, 

*■ 

The muses fair, these peaceful shades among. 
He wanders earih> around. 



§ LXV.] POETIC LICENSE. 215 

FIGURES OF RHETORIC- 

476. The principal figures of Rhetoric are Simile, Meta* 
phor, Personification, Allegory, Metonymy, Vision, Apos- 
trophe, Hyperbole, Synecdoche, Irony, Antithesis and Cli- 
max. 

1. A Simile is an express and formal comparison. 

EXAMPLES. 

The actions of princes are like those great rivers, the course of which every 
one beholds, but their springs have been seen by few. 

As from the wing no scar the sky retains, 
The parted wave no furrow from the keel, 
So dies in human hearts the thought of death. 

2. A Metaphor is a comparison implied in a single word. 

EXAMPLES. 

I will be unto her a wall of fire round about. 

Thou art my rock and my fortress. 

Thy word is a lamp to my feet and a light to my path. 

3. Personification or Prosopopceia is that figure by 
which we attribute life and action to inanimate objects. 

examples. 

Jordan was driven back ! The mountains skipped like rams, and the little 
hills like lambs. 

Borne for empire far renowned, 

Tramples on a thousand States ; 
Soon her pride shall kiss the ground — 
Hark ! the Gaul is at her gates. 

4. An Allegory is a continued metaphor ; for examples 
see Ezekiel xvn. 22 — 24. and Psalms lxxx. 8 — 17. 

5. Metonymy is substituting the name of one thing for that 
of another, 



216 PROSODY. [§ LXY. 



EXAMPLE. 

They crown the wine [cups]. They read Cowper ; that is, The poetry of 
Cowper. Gray hairs should be respected. 

6. Vision is a figure by which something imaginary is rep- 
resented as real, and present to the senses. 

EXAMPLE. 

I seem to myself to behold this city, the ornament of the earth, and the 
capital of all nations, suddenly involved in one conflagration. I see before me 
the slaughtered heaps of citizens lying unburied in the midst of their ruined 
country. The furious countenance of Cethegus rises to my view, while, with 
a savage joy, he is triumphing in your miseries. 

7. Apostrophe is turning off from the regular course of the 
subject, to address some person or thing. 

EXAMPLE. 

Soul of the Just ! Companion of the Good. 
sun ! thy everlasting light. 

8. Hyperbole consists in magnifying or diminishing a thing 
beyond the truth. 

EXAMPLE. 

I saw their chief, tall as a rock of ice ; his spear the blasted fir ; his shield 
the rising moon ; he sat on the shore like a cloud of mist on the hill. 

9. Synecdoche is putting the name of the whole of any 
thing for a part, or a part for the whole ; as the waves for the 
sea, the roof for the house, the head for the person, the heart 
for the emotions, &c. 

10. Irony is the intentional use of words in a sense contra- 
ry to that which the writer or speaker intends to convey ; as, 

The prophet Elijah, when he challenged the priests of Baal, " mocked them 
and said, Cry aloud, for he is a god ; either he is talking, or he is pursuing, or 
is on a journey, or peradventure he sleepeth, and must be awaked." 



PROSODY. 217 

11. Antithesis is the placing of different or opposite words 
in contrast ; as, 

If you wish to enrich a person, study not to increase his stores, but to di- 
minish his desires. 

Though poor, luxurious ; though submissive, vain. 
Though deep, yet clear / though gentle, yet not dull. 

12. Climax is a figure in which the sentiment rises or sinks 
in regular gradation ; as, 

Add to your faith virtue ; and to virtue knowledge ; and to knowledge tern 
perance; &c. See 2 Pet. 1 : 5 — <T. 

19 



APPENDIX, 



DERIVATION. 

About 23,000, or five eighths* of the words in the English 
Language are of Anglo-Saxon origin ; the remaining part 
are derived from the Latin, Geek, French, and some other 
languages. 

The following is a specimen of the orthography of the English Language 
about the fourteenth century : 

In the days of Eroude, kyng of Judee, ther was a prest, 
Zaearye by name ; of the sort of Abia, and his wyf was of the 
doughtirs of Aaron ; and hir name was Elizabeth. Luke I. — 
Wickliffe's Version, written 1380. , 

The following extracts are from some of the earliest authors : 

No we for to speak of the commune, 

It is to dread of that fortune, 

Which hath befalle in sondrye londes. — Gower. 

Alas, alas ! with how defe an ere deth cruell turneth awaie 
fro wretches, and naieth for to close weepyng eyess. — - Chancer. 
A knight ther was, and that a worthy man, 
That fro the time that he first began 
To ridin out, he lovid chevalrie, 
Trouth and honour, fredome and curtesy. — Id, 



APPENDIX. 219 

Mine high estate, power and auctoritie, 

If yene know, enserche and ye shall spie, 

That richesse, worship, welth, and dignitie, 

Joy, rest, and peace, and all things fynally, 

That any pleasure or profit may come by, 

To mannes comfort, ayde and sustinaunce, 

Is all at my deuyse and ordinaunce. — Thomas More. 



DERIVATION OF WORDS. 

Words are either primitive or derivative. 

A primitive word is one which is not derived from any 
other word in the language. 

A derivative is one which is formed from some primitive 
word or words. 

Words are derived from one another in various ways ; 
namely : 

1. Substantives are derived from verbs. 

2. Verbs are derived from substantives, adjectives, and 
sometimes from adverbs. 

3. Adverbs are derived from substantives. 

4. Substantives are derived from adjectives. 

5. Adverbs are derived from adjectives. 

1. Substantives are derived from verbs ; as, from u to love," comes " lover ;" 
from " to visit, visitor ; " from H to survive, survivor ; " &c. 

In the following instances, and in many others, it is difficult to determine 
whether the verb was deduced from the noun, or the noun from the verb ; 
namely : Love, to love ; hate, to hate ; fear, to fear ; sleep, to sleep ; walk, to 
walk ; ride, to ride ; act, to act ; &c. 

2. Verbs are derived from nouns, adjectives, and sometimes from adverbs ; as, 
from the noun salt, comes " to salt ; " from the adjective warm " to warm f 
and from the adverb forward " to forward." Sometimes they are formed by 



220 



APPENDIX. 



lengthening the vowel, or softening the consonant ; as, from grass, " to graze ;*» 
sometimes by adding en ; as, from length, " to lengthen ; " especially to adjec- 
tives ; as, from short " to shorten ; " bright, " to brighten.'* 

3. Adjectives are derived from nouns, in the following manner ; Adjectives 
denoting plenty are derived from nouns by adding y ; as, from health, healthy ; 
wealth, wealthy ; might, mighty ; &c. 

Adjectives denoting the matter out of which any thing is made, are derived 
from nouns, by adding en ; as, from Oak, oaken ; wood, wooden ; wool, woollen ; 
&c. 

Adjectives denoting abundance are derived from nouns, by adding ful ; as, 
J° Jj joyful ; sin, sinful ; fruit, fruitful ; &c. 

Adjectives denoting plenty, but with some kind of diminution, are derived 
from nouns by adding some ; as, from Light, lightsome ; trouble, troublesome ; 
toil, toilsome ; &c. 

Adjectives denoting want are derived from nouns, by adding less ; as, from 
worth, worthless ; from care, careless ; joy, jojdess ; &c. 

Adjectives denoting likeness, are derived from nouns, by adding ly : as, 
from man, manly ; earth, earthly ; court, courtly ; &c. 

Some adjectives are derived from other adjectives ; or from nouns, by add- 
ing ish to them ; which termination, when added to adjectives, imports dimi- 
nution, or lessening the quality ; as, White, whitish ; that is, somewhat white. 
When added to nouns, it signifies similitude or tendency to a character ; as, 
Child, childish ; thief, thievish. 

Some adjectives are formed from nouns or verbs, by adding the termination 
able : and those adjectives signify capacity ; as, Answer, answerable ; to 
change, changeable 

4. Nouns are derived from adjectives sometimes by adding the termination 
ness : as, White, whiteness ; swift, swiftness ; sometimes by adding th or t, 
and making a small change in some of the letters ; as, Long, length ; high, 
height. 

6. Adverbs of quality are derived from adjectives, by adding ly, or changing 
le into ly : and denote the same quality as the adjectives from which they are 
derived ; as, from base comes basely : from slow, sloicly : from able, ably. 

There are so many other ways of deriving words from one another, that it 
would be extremely difficult, and nearly impossible, to enumerate them. The 
primitive words of any language are very few ; the derivatives form much the 
greater number. A few more instances only can be given here. 

Some nouns are derived from other nouns, by adding the terminations hood 
or head, ship, ery, wick, rick, dom, ian, ment, and age. 

Substantives ending in hood or head, are such as signify character or quali- 
ties ; as, Manhood, knighthood, falsehood, &c. 



APPENDIX. 221 

Nouns ending in ship, are those that signify office, employment, state, or 
condition ; as, Lordship, stewardship, partnership, &c. Some nouns ending 
in sJiip, are derived from adjectives ; as, Hard, hardship, &c. 

Nouns which end in ery, signify action or habit ; as, Slavery, foolery, prud 
ery, &c. Some nouns of this sort come from adjectives ; as, Brave, bravery, 
&c. 

Noum ending in wick, rich, and dom, denote dominion, jurisdiction, or con- 
dition ; as, Bishoprick, kingdom, dukedom, freedom, &c. 

Nouns which end in ian, are those that signify profession ; as Physician, 
musician, &c. Those that end in merit and age, come generally from the 
French, and commonly signify the act or habit ; as, Commandment, usage. 

Some nouns ending in ard, are derived from verbs or adjectives, and denote 
character or habit ; as, Drunk, drunkard ; dote, dotard. 

Some nouns have the form of diminutives ; but these are not many. They 
are formed by adding the terminations, kin, ling, ing, ock, el, and the like ; as, 
Lamb, lambkin ; goose, gosling ; duck, duckling ; hill, hillock ; &c. 



PREFIXES AND SUFFIXES. 

Most of the derivative words of the English language are 
formed by the aid of prefixes and suffixes. 

A prefix is a letter, syllable, or word, joined to the beginning 
of a word ; as, ashore, return. 

A suffix is a letter or syllable annexed to the end of a word ; 
as, sure^, contentme^. 

1. SAXON PEEFIXES. 

A signifies on, in, or at ; as, ashore, afar, asleep. 

Be, upon, by, fm>, &c. ; as, bespeak, betide, besprinkle, because. 

For, from or against; as, /brbear, forbid. 

Fore, before; as, forete\l, foreknow. 

Mis, wrong, erroneous, or defective ; as, msconduct, misrule. 

Out, beyond, more, or exterior; as, outrun, outlive, outside. 

Over denotes excess, or superiority ; as, overdo, overcome. 

Un, negation, or privation ; as, wwcertain, unbind. 

Under signifies beneath, inferior ; as, undermine, undergo, 

Up denotes elevation, or subversion; as, upland, upset. 

With signifies from, or back; as, withstand, withhold, 

19* 



222 APPENDIX. 

2. LATIN PREFIXES* 

A, ab, or abs, signify from ; as, avert, abstract. 

Ad, a, ac, af, ag, al, an, ap, ar, as, or at, signify to, at ; as, accedei, 
«?lot, annex, arrest, abstract, a/fix. 

Ante, signifies before : as, antecedent. 

Circum, signifies round: as, cim^mnavigate. 

Con, co, cog, col, com, or cob, signify either, together : as, cohere, collect, 
compress, correlative. 

Contra signifies against : as, contradict. This prefix is sometimes changed 
to counter; as, counteract. 

De signifies from, or down : as, deduce. 

Dis generally implies separation, or disunion : as in oYssolve. It has some- 
times a negative use ; as in disapprove. Bis takes also the form di and dif: as 
in cK verge, o^yfuse. 

E or ex signifies out of or from : as eject, to cast out ; evade, to escape from. 
This prefix takes also the forms ec and ef: as, eccentric, efface. 

Extba signifies beyond or more than : as, extraordinary. 

In, im, en, ig, il, and ir, before adjectives, have a negative signification : 
as, inactive, not active. Before a verb, they signify in, into, or against. 

Inter signifies between or among : as, intervene, intersperse, to scatter 
among. 

Ob, oc, of, of, for, in the way of: as, obstruct, occur. 

Per, through, or by : as, pervade, to pass through ; perchance, by chance. 

Pre or pr^e, before : as, precede, to go before. 

Pro, for, forth, or forward: as, pronoun, for a noun ; provoke, to call forth ; 
promote, to move forward. 

Re, again, or bach : as, reenter, recall. 

Retro, backward: as, retrocession. 

Se, aside : as, secede. 

Sine, without : as, sinecure, without care. 

Sub, sue, suf, sug, sup and sus, signify under : as, swoscribe, to write under. 

Super signifies beyond, above, or over : as, supernatural, beyond nature ; su- 
pervise, to oversee. 

Trans signifies oyer, or beyond: as, transfer, to carry over. 



3. GREEK PREFIXES. 

1. A and an, in Greek, denote privation ; as, Anomalous, wanting rule ; 
anonymous, wanting name ; anarchy want of government. 

2. Amphi, both or two : as, Amphibious, living in two elements. 

3. Anti, against : as, Antacid, against acidity ; antifebrile, against fever ; 
antithesis, a placing against. 

4. Apo, aph, from: as, Apostrophe a turning from; apteesis, a taking 
from. 



APPENDIX. 223 

5. Dia, through: as, .Diagonal, through the corners; efeaineter, the measure 
through. 

6. Epi, eph, upon : as, Epidemic, upon the people ; ep/iemesa, upon a day. 

7. Hemi, half: as, Hemisphere, half a sphere. 

8. Hyper, over : as, .Hypercritical, over-critical. 

9. Hypo, under : as, fi^pothesis, supposition, or a placing under. 

10. Meta, beyond, over: as, J/etaniorphose, to change to another shape. 

11. Para, against ; as, Paradox, something contrary to common opinion 

12. Peri, around: as, Periphery, the circumference, or measure round 



ABBREVIATIONS, 



A. or Ans. Answer. 

A. A. S. Fellow of the Amer- 
ican Academy. 

A. B. or B. A. Bachelor of 
Arts. 

Abp. Archbishop, 

Acct. Account, 

A. O. Before Christ, 

A. D. In the year of our 
Lord. 

Adj. Adjective, 

Admr. Administrator. 

Adv. Adverb. 

Aet. Of age. 

Agt. Agent. 

Ala. Alabama. 

Alt. Altitude. 

Am. American. 

A. M. Before noon ; or in 
the year of the world. 

A. M. or M. A* Master of 
Arts. 



Anon. Anonymous* 
Apr. April. 
Ark. Arkansas. 
Art. Article. 
Atty. Attorney. 

A. U. G. In the year of the 
city [Rome.] 

Aug. August. 
Bart. Baronet. 
Bhl 9 or brl. Barrel. 

B. O. Before Christ. 

B. D. Bachelor of Divinity. 

Benj. Benjamin, 

Bp. Bishop. 

G. or cent. A hundred. 

Capt. Captain. 

Cash. Cashier. 

G. G. County Court. 

G. G. P. Court of Common 

Pleas. 
Chap. Chapter. 
Ghas. Charles. 



ABBREVIATIONS. 



225 



Ghron. Chronicles. 
Co. Company; county. 
Col. Colonel. 
Coll. College. 
Com. Commissioner. 
Con. On the other hand. 
Conj. Conjunction. 
Const. Constable. 
Cor. Corinthians. 

C. P. Court of Probate. 
Cr. Credit, or creditor. 
Ct. or Conn. Connecticut. 
Cts. Cents. 

Cwt. Hundred weight. 

D. A penny, or pence. 
Dan. Daniel. 

D. C. District of Columbia. 

D. D. Doctor of Divinity. 

Dea. Deacon. 

Dec. December. 

Deg. Degree. 

Del. Delaware. 

Dep. Deputy. 

Deut. Deuteronomy. 

Dft. Defendant. 

Do. or ditto. The same. 

Doct. or Dr. Doctor. 

Dolls, or $. Dollars. 

Doz. Dozen. 

D. P. Doctor of Philosophy. 

Dr. Debtor ; doctor. 



Dwt. Pennyweight. 
E. East. : 
Eben. Ebenezer. 
Eccl. Ecclesiastes. 
Ed. Editor; edition. 
E. E. Errors excepted. 

E. g. For example. 
Eng. English, or England. 
Ep. Epistle. 

Eph. Ephesians. 

Esq. Esquire. 

Etc. et ccetera. And others ; 

and so on. 
Ex. Exodus ; example. 
Exr. Executor. 
Exrx. Executrix. 
Feb. February. 
Fig. Figure. 
Fla. Florida. 
Fol. Folio. 
Fr. French ; France. 

F. JR. S. Fellow of the Royal 
Society. 

Fur. Furlong. 

Ga. Georgia. 

Gal. Galatians. 

Gall. Gallon. 

Gen. Genesis; general. 

Gent. Gentlemen. 

Geo. George. 

Gov. Governor. 



22G 



ABBREVIATIONS. 



Gr. Grain. 

G. E. George the King, 

H. or hr. Hour. 

H. B. M. His or her Britannic 

Majesty. 
Heb. Hebrews. 
Hhd. Hogshead. 
H. M. His or Her Majesty. 
Hon- Honorable. 
H. S. E. Here lies buried. 
Hund. Hundred. 
la. or Ind. Indiana. 
lb. or ibid. In the same place. 
id. The same* 
i. e. That is. 
Ill, Illinois. 
Incog. Unknown. 
Inst. Instant, i, e. present, or 

of this month. 
Is a. Isaiah. 
Jan. January. 
Jas. or Ja. James. 
Jno. John. 
Jona. Jonathan, 
Jos. Joseph. 
Josh. Joshua. 
Jr. or Jun. Junior. 
Just. Justice. 
Kt. Knight, 
Ky. Kentucky. 
La. Louisiana. 



L. or Lib. A book, 

£. or lb. Pound. 

Lam. Lamentations, 

Lot. Latitude. 

L. G. Lower Canada. 

Lev. Leviticus. 

Lieut. Lieutenant. 

LL.D. Doctor of Laws, 

Lon. Longitude. 

Lond. London. 

L. S. The place of the seal. 

M. Marquis. 

M. A thousand. 

M. A. Master of Arts. 

Maj. Major. 

Mar. March. 

Mass. Massachusetts. 

Matt. Matthew. 

M. G. Member of Congress. 

Md. Maryland. 

M. D. Doctor of Medicine. 

Me. Maine. 

Messrs. Messieurs. 

Mi. or Miss. Mississippi. 

Mich. Michigan. 

Mo. Missouri. 

MP. Member of Parliament. 

Mr. Mister. 

Mrs. Mistress (pron. missis.) 

MS. Manuscript. 

MSS. Manuscripts. 



ABBREVIATIONS. 



227 



N. North ; note. 
N. A. North America. 
N. B. Take particular notice. 
N. B. New Brunswick. 
N. C. North Carolina. 
N. E. New England ; north- 
east. 
Nem. con. No one opposing. 
N. H. New Hampshire. 
N. J. New Jersey. 
No. Number. 
N. 0. New Orleans. 
Nov. November. 
N. S Nova Scotia ; new style, 
N. T. New Testament. 
Num. Numbers. 
N. W. North-west. 
N. Y. New York. 
0. Ohio. 
Obt. Obedient. 
Oct. October. 
0. S. Old Style. 
Oxon. Oxford. 
Oz. Ounce or ounces. 
P. Page. 

Pa. or Penn. Pennsylvania. 
Per cent. By the hundred. 
Pet. Peter. 
PI. Plural. 

P. M. Afternoon ; Postmaster. 
P. 0. Post Office. 



Pp. Pages. 

Pres. President. 

Prob. Problem. 

Prof. Professor. 

Prop. Proposition. 

Ps. Psalms. 

P. S. Postscript 

Q. or Qu. Question. 

Q. E. D. Which was to be 

demonstrated. 
Qr. Quarter. 
Qt. Quart. 
Q. v. Which see. 
Rev. Keverend ; Revelation. 
R. I. Rhode Island. 
R. N. Royal Navy. 
Robt. Robert. 
Rom. Romans. 
R. R. Railroad. 
Rt. Hon. Right Honorable. 
& South; shilling or shillings. 
S. A. South America. 
S. O. South Carolina. 
Sec. Secretary. 
Sect. Section. 
S. E. South-east. 
Sem. Seminary. 
Sen. Senior. 
Sept. September. 
Servt. Servant. 
Sq. Square. 



228 



ABBREVIATIONS. 



Ss. To wit ; namely. 
St. Saint ; street. 
S. T: D. Doctor of Theology. 
S. T. P. Professor of Divini- 
ty- 
S. W. South-west. 
Tenn. Tennessee. 
Theo. Theological. 
Thess. Thessalonians. 
Thos. Thomas. 
Tim. Timothy. 
Tit Titus. 

Tr. Translator; treasurer. 
U. C. Upper Canada. 
TJlt. The last month. 
U. S. United States. 
U. S. M. United States Mail. 
U. S. N. United States Navy. 
V. or vid. See. 



Va. Virginia. 

Viz. To wit, namely o 

Vol. Volume. 

Vols. Volumes. 

Vs. Against. 

Vt. Vermont. 

W. West. 

W. I. West Indies. 

Wh. Week. 

Wm. William. 

Wt. Weight. 

Yd. Yard. 

Yds. Yards. 

&. And. 

&c. And others ; and so forth. 

Ato. Quarto. 

Svo. Octavo. 

12mo. Duodecimo. 

18mo. Octodecimo. 



230 



SYNOPSIS OF GRAMMATICAL RELATIONS. 



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INDEX. 



Abbreviations, 224, 225, 226, 227, 
228. 

Adjectives, S7 — descriptive, -J57, 
113 — definitive, 38, 114 — classes 
of, 113 — pronominal, 115 — syn- 
tax of, 164 — comparison of, 116, 
165 — - position of, 166. 

Adjunct, 43 — of the subject, 42 — 
of the predicate, 50. 

Adverbs, 48, 123 — comparison of, 
123 — syntax of, 180. 

Analysis op sentences, 23 — mod- 
els of, 24, 25, 26, etc. 

Appendix, 218. 

Apposition, 40, 143. 

Articles, 38, 114 — syntax of, 170. 

Attribute, 24. 

Auxiliary verbs, 87 — nature of, 
88, 89, 90. 

Capital letters, use of, 20. 

Case, 29 — nominative, 67, 149, 150 
151- possessive, 67, 152 — objective, 

67, 155, 156, 157 - independent, 159, 

160. 

Classes — of nouns, 58 — of verbs, 
70 - of adjectives, 113. 



Classification — of sentences 27 
of clauses, 130. 

Clauses — independent, 131 — sub 
stantive, 132 — adjectives, 134 — 
adverbial, 134 — conditional, 135 — 
abridged, 139. 

Comparison — of adjectives, 116, 
117, 118 — of adverbs, 123. 

Compound sentences, 130. 

Conjunctions 54, 55, 185 — syntax 
of, 185 — corresponding with con- 
junctions, 186 — with adverbs, 187, 

— with adjectives, 187. 

Conjugation of verbs, 87 — of 
have, 92 — of be, 94 — of love, 98 

— in the passive voice, 101 — in 
the interrogative form, 101 — in the 
emphatic form, 102. 

Composition — exercises in, 201, 202, 
203, 204, 205, 206, 207, 208. 

Connectives, 136. 

Connection of clauses, 137 — by 
conjunctions, 137 — by adverbs, 
138 — by relative words or phrases, 
138 — by incorporation, 138. 

Consonants, 15. 

Derivation — of words, 219-20-21. 



I^DEX, 



Diphthongs, 20. 

Figures -— of etymology, 213 — of 
syntax, 214 — of rhetoric, 215. 

Finite verbs, 33 — parsing of, 36. 

Formation of tenses, 109. 

Gender, 29, 64. 

Grammatical relations — synop- 
sis of, 231, 232. 

Infinitive mode — syntax of, 112, 
172, 174. 

Interjections, 57 — syntax of, 188, 

Intransitive verbs, 71 — used in 
the passive form, 72. 

Irregular verbs, 103 — list of, 104. 

Letters, 14. 

Letter-writing, 129. 

Modes, 75 — syntax of, 177. 

Modify, 37 — modified subject, 37 — 
modified predicate, 46. 

Nominatives — connected by and, 
149 — connected by or, 150 — of 
collective nouns, 151. 

Nouns, 28 — declension of, 68 — prop- 
erties of, 60 — common, 28, 58 — 
proper, 28, 58 — syntax of, 143, 144. 

Number — of nouns and pronouns, 
29, 60 — of verbs, 85. 

Objective case — syntax of, 155, 
156 — two objectives, 157. 

Participles — present, perfect, and 
compound, 82 — present used pass- 
ively, 83 — parsing of, 84, 175. 

Participial nouns, 83. 

Parts of speech, 27. 

Person — of nouns, 29, 60 — of verbs, 
85. 



Phrase, 24 — substantive, 141 — ad 
jective, 141 — adverbial, 141. 

Poetic license, 212. 

Possessive case — syntax of, 41, 
152. 

Predicate, 23 — modified by an ob- 
ject, 46 — modified by an adjunct, 
50 — modified by a clause, 51. 

Predicate adjective, 39. 

Predicate nominative, 35 — pars- 
ing of, 35, 135. 

Prefixes and suffixes, 221 — Sax- 
on, 221 — Latin, 222 -— Greek, 222. 

Prepositions, 42 — list of, 43 — syn- 
tax of, 182. 

Pronouns, 29 — declension of, 68 — 
properties of, 60 — relative, 119 — 
compound, 121 — syntax of, 161. 

Propositions, 33. 

Prosody, 208. 

Punctuation, 197 — the comma, 197, 
198, 199 — semicolon, colon, and 
period, 200. 

Regular verbs, 83. 

Relative pronouns, 119 — parsing 
of, 120. 

Sentences — declarative, exclama- 
tory, imperative, 27 — simple, 27 
— compound, 130. 

Spelling — rules of, 22. 

Subject, 23, 33, 54 — modified by an 
adjective, 37 — modified by noun 
or pronoun, 41 — modified by an 
adjunct, 42. 

Subject nominative, 35, 146. 

Substitutes — consonant, 18 — 
vowel, 18. 



284 



INDEX. 



Syntax, 130 — general exercises on 
the rules of, 189, 190, 191, 192, 193, 
194, 195, 196, 197. 

Tense, 76, 77. 

Tenses of the indicative mode, 

— present, 78 — imperfect, 78 — 
perfect, 79 — pluperfect, 79 — first 
future, 80 — second future, 80. 

Tenses op the Potential mode, 
81. 

Tenses of the subjunctive mode, 
81, 82. 

Variations, 58, 



Verbs, 31, 70 — transitive, 32, 71 — 
intransitive, 31, 70 — conjugation of, 
87 — auxiliary, 87 — defective, 110 

— impersonal, 111. 

Versification — iambic verse, 209 

— trochaic verse, 210 — anapaestic 
verse, 212. 

Vowels, 14 — sounds of, 16. 

Voice, active and passive, 71. 

What, 121 — parsing of, 122. 

Words, 20 — modification of, 53 — 
derivation of, 219 



cflje. <m- 



